KEY CONCEPT DNA structure is the same in all organisms.

DNA is made up of a long chain of nucleotides Each nucleotide has three parts Sugar – deoxyribose Phosphate group a nitrogen-containing Base phosphate group deoxyribose (sugar) nitrogen-containing base

The nitrogen containing bases - Thymine (T) - Adenine (A) - Cytosine (C) - Guanine (G) * Pyrimidines – have 1 ring = Thymine & Cytosine * Purines – have 2 rings = Adenine & Guanine *

Watson and Crick determined the Three-dimensional structure of DNA 1953 Two nucleotide chains wrap around each other to form a double spiral (double helix) Temperature liable – a change in T can break apart the DNA strand

Rosalind Franklin and Erwin Chargaff. Franklin’s x-ray images suggested that DNA was a double helix of even width. Chargaff’s - Complementary Base Pairing - A=T and C=G

Pyrimidine (single ring) pairs with a Purine (double ring) G - C A - T

The bases are connected by hydrogen bonds Easily formed & easily broken Sugar & phosphates (backbone) are connected with covalent bonds Very strong Share electrons hydrogen bond covalent bond

We love D N A Made of nucleotides Sugar, Phosphate and a Base Bonded down one Side Adenine and Thymine Make a Lovely Pair Cytosine without Guanine Would feel very bare O-O-O deoxy-ribo-nucleic acid R-N-A is ribo-nucleic acid

8.3 DNA Replication DNA is replicated during the S phase of interphase Inside the nucleus

DNA serves as a template. 8.3 DNA Replication DNA serves as a template. 1. Helicase – (Enzyme) breaks the Hydrogen bonds between the bases Replication Fork – point at which the two chains separate (last bond broken) nucleotide The DNA molecule unzips in both directions.

8.3 DNA Replication New complimentary nucleotide bases pair up on both sides of old DNA template A pairs up with complement T C pairs up with complement G DNA polymerase (Enzyme) forms new Hydrogen bonds between the nucleotides DNA polymerase new strand nucleotide

8.3 DNA Replication Two new exact copies of DNA are formed, each with an original strand and a newly formed strand. original strand new strand Two molecules of DNA

Replication is fast and accurate. 8.3 DNA Replication Replication is fast and accurate. DNA replication starts at many points in eukaryotic chromosomes. Mutation – change in the nucleotide sequence DNA polymerases can find and correct errors. One error per 1 billion nucleotides

8.4 Transcription RNA differs from DNA in three major ways. RNA Sugar = Ribose Base - Uracil instead of thymine. U - A 3. Shape - single-stranded

8.4 Transcription Three types of RNA. Mesenger RNA (mRNA) – single uncoiled chain carries genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm Transfer RNA (tRNA) – single chain of about 80 nucleotides folded into a hairpin shape binds to specific amino acids Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – makes up the ribosomes where proteins are made

8.4 Transcription Process of copying DNA into mRNA Transcription starts when RNA polymerase (enzyme) - binds to a Promoter on DNA breaks H-bonds and makes H-bonds One chain is used as a template mRNA = transcript Transcription stops when RNA polymerase reaches a Terminator start site nucleotides transcription complex

Transcription vs Replication. Replication copies all the DNA Transcription copies only a gene. growing RNA strands DNA one gene

8.5 Translation KEY CONCEPT Translation converts an mRNA message into a protein.

Amino acids = building blocks of proteins coded by mRNA 8.5 Translation Amino acids = building blocks of proteins coded by mRNA Codon – 3 nucleotides of mRNA AUG = start UAA, UAG, UGA = stop codon for methionine (Met) leucine (Leu)

8.5 Translation The genetic code matches each codon to its amino acid 20 amino acids are used to make up all the proteins in a human

8.5 Translation tRNA – transports amino acids to the ribosomes Anticodon – tRNA sequence of 3 nucleotides complementary to an mRNA codon.

8.5 Translation Translation takes place at the Ribosomes Ribosomes that are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum build proteins for use outside cell Ribosomes that are free floating make proteins for use inside cell

8.5 Translation For Translation to begin - Ribosomes attaches to a start codon on mRNA (AUG) Start codon pairs with the anticodon on tRNA (UAC) codes for the first amino acid – methionine may be removed later if not needed

8.5 Translation Amino acids are bonded together with peptide bonds Protein = polypeptide

8.5 Translation Once the stop codon is reached, the ribosome releases the protein

8.6 Gene Expression and Regulation KEY CONCEPT Gene expression is carefully regulated in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes – gene expression is regulated by controlling transcription

8.6 Gene Expression and Regulation An operator is a part of DNA that turns a gene “on” or ”off.” The lac operon was one of the first examples of gene regulation to be discovered 3 genes that code for enzymes that break down lactose Milk sugar Lac operon is switched on when lactose binds to the lac repressor

8.6 Gene Expression and Regulation RNA processing – occurs in nucleus (eukaryotes) Introns are nucleotides that are removed from mRNA Exons are the nucleotides that are spliced together. Processed mRNA (transcript) goes to ribosome to be made into a protein

8.6 Gene Expression and Regulation Coding DNA (genes) exons  make proteins Humans = 20,000 Non-coding DNA (genes) introns  make RNA Transcribed but never Translated Human = 500 Human Total = ~ 20,500 genes