UNIT 4 BRAIN, BEHAVIOUR & EXPERIENCE AREA OF STUDY 1 LEARNING

OPERANT CONDITIONING Operational conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) is a type of learning whereby the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future An organism will tend to repeat a behaviour (operants) that has desirable consequences, or that will enable it to avoid undesirable consequences An organism will tend not to repeat a behaviour that has undesirable consequences Operant = any response that acts (operates) on the environment to produce some kind of consequence KK 3D – PAGE 422-448

OPERANT CONDITIONING THREE-PHASE MODEL OF OPERANT CONDITIONING DISCRIMINATIVE RESPONSE CONSEQUENCE STIMULUS (R) (C) (So) DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS: the stimulus (object or event) that precedes a particular (ANTECEDENT STIMULUS) response, signals the probable consequence for the response and therefore influences the occurrence of the response (eg. mobile phone ring, green traffic light) RESPONSE: the voluntary behaviour that occurs in the presence of the discriminative stimulus. One specific action. Has an effect on the environment in the form of a consequence CONSEQUENCE: the environmental event that occurs immediately after the response and determines whether or not the response will occur KK 3D – PAGE 423-425

HOMEWORK LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.11 (pg.425) KK 3D – LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.11 (PAGE 425)

OPERANT CONDITIONING SKINNER’S EXPERIMENTS WITH RATS A Skinner box is a small chamber in which an experimental animal learns to make a particular response for which the consequences can be controlled by the researcher Reinforcer = food pellets Aversive stimulus = electric floor Desired behaviour = lever pressing Random movements in the box are soon replaced by consistent lever-pressing in response to the reinforcer (reward) being presented as a consequence to behaviour KK 3D – PAGE 426-427

HOMEWORK LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.12 (pg.427) KK 3D – LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.12 (PAGE 427)

OPERANT CONDITIONING ELEMENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING REINFORCEMENT: is said to occur when a stimulus (object or event) strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows PUNISHMENT: the delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response, or the removal of a pleasant consequence following a response. This weakens the response or decreases the probability of that response occurring again There are 4 elements of operant conditioning POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT POSITIVE PUNISHMENT NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT KK 3D – PAGE 428-434

OPERANT CONDITIONING ELEMENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING KK 3D – PAGE 428-434

OPERANT CONDITIONING ELEMENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING REINFORCEMENT POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: occurs from giving or applying a positive reinforcer after the desired response has been made (a positive reinforcer is a stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response by providing a satisfying consequence) NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. It has the effect of increasing the likelihood of a response being repeated (a negative reinforcer is any unpleasant or aversive stimulus that, when removed or avoided, strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response) KK 3D – PAGE 428-434

OPERANT CONDITIONING ELEMENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING PUNISHMENT POSITIVE PUNISHMENT: involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus and thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT: involves the removal or loss of a desirable stimulus and thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again RESPONSE COST: the removal of any valued stimulus, whether or not it causes the behaviour (eg. speeding fine, grades) KK 3D – PAGE 428-434

OPERANT CONDITIONING ELEMENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING KK 3D – PAGE 428-434

OPERANT CONDITIONING ELEMENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING KK 3D – PAGE 428-434

OPERANT CONDITIONING ELEMENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING KK 3D – PAGE 428-434

OPERANT CONDITIONING FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF REINFORCEMENT & PUNISHMENT ORDER OF PRESENTATION - Reinforcement or punishment must be presented after the desired response, never before. Helps the organism to learn that the consequence is attached to the response RESPONSE REINFORCEMENT TIMING - Reinforcement and punishment must be given immediately following the response. This timing helps the organism to associate the response with the consequence APPROPRIATENESS - Rewards and punishments must mean something to the organism. They must be appropriate to the situation KK 3D – PAGE 431-433

HOMEWORK LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.13 (pg.430) LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.14 (pg.434) LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.15 (pg.434) LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.16 (pg.435) KK 3D – LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.13 (PAGE 430) KK 3D – LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.14 (PAGE 434) KK 3D – LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.15 (PAGE 434) KK 3D – LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.16 (PAGE 435)

OPERANT CONDITIONING SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Schedule of Reinforcement: a program for giving reinforcement; specifically the frequency and manner in which the desired response is reinforced CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT: The reinforcer is typically provided immediately after every response. This is usually best done early in the conditioning process PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT: the process of reinforcing some correct responses but not all of them FIXED RATIO SCHEDULE VARIABLE RATIO SCHEDULE FIXED INTERVAL SCHEDULE VARIABLE INTERVAL SCHEDULE KK 3D – PAGE 435-438

OPERANT CONDITIONING SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT RATIO: after a certain number of responses have been made INTERVAL: after a certain amount of time has elapsed following the last correct response FIXED RATIO: Reinforcement is given after a set number of desired responses have been made (Ratio of 1:10 = 1 reinforcement: 10 responses) VARIABLE RATIO: The reinforcer is given after an unpredictable number of desired responses. The mean number of responses is set beforehand however. (eg. Mean ratio = 1:10 Reinforced 3rd response; Reinforced 17th response) WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF EACH THAT YOU CAN THINK OF? KK 3D – PAGE 435-438

OPERANT CONDITIONING SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT INTERVAL: after a certain amount of time has elapsed following the last correct response FIXED INTERVAL: Delivery of the reinforcer after a specific or fixed time has elapsed since the previous reinforcer, provided the correct response has been made. Once organism works this out, stops responding until time of next reinforcer VARIABLE INTERVAL: Reinforcement is given after irregular or variable periods of time, provided the correct response has been made. There is a mean period of time, eg. average of 10 seconds, but reinforcer may be given on 3rd second, 17th second etc) WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF EACH THAT YOU CAN THINK OF? KK 3D – PAGE 435-438

OPERANT CONDITIONING SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT EFFECT FIXED RATIO The ratio needs to be relatively frequent in the acquisition phase of learning. Once learning is complete you can extend the ratio (eg. 1:10 to 1:15). Steady increase in responses VARIABLE RATIO Effective in relation to the speed in which learning is acquired and the length of time taken for response to extinguish. Organism’s uncertainty keeps them responding steadily FIXED INTERVAL Produces a moderate response that is erratic. Once organism has learnt that time is the key factor it will stop responding after each reinforcer and wait for the time of the next reinforcer to respond again VARIABLE INTERVAL Since it can be predicted, this produces a low but very steady state of responding KK 3D – PAGE 435-438

OPERANT CONDITIONING SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT KK 3D – PAGE 435-438

HOMEWORK LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.17 (pg.438) LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.18 (pg.439) KK 3D – LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.17 (PAGE 438) KK 3D – LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.18 (PAGE 439)

OPERANT CONDITIONING KEY PROCESSES IN OPERANT CONDITIONING The key processes in operant conditioning are the same as those in classical conditioning: ACQUISITION EXTINCTION SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY STIMULUS GENERALISATION STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION KK 3D – PAGE 439-442

OPERANT CONDITIONING KEY PROCESSES IN OPERANT CONDITIONING ACQUISITION: the establishment of a response through reinforcement. The speed of this depends on the schedule of reinforcement used EXTINCTION: the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a conditioned response following consistent non-reinforcement of the response. This is less likely to occur when partial reinforcement is used SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY after the apparent extinction of a conditioned response, the organism will again show the response in the absence of any reinforcement STIMULUS GENERALISATION Occurs when the correct response is made to another stimulus that is similar to the stimulus that was present when the conditioned response was reinforced STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION occurs when an organism makes the correct response to a stimulus and is reinforced, but does not respond to any other stimulus KK 3D – PAGE 439-442

HOMEWORK LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.19 (pg.441-442) KK 3D – LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.19 (PAGE 441-442)

OPERANT CONDITIONING APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING SHAPING A procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that successively approximates and ultimately leads to the final desired response, or target behaviour KK 3E – PAGE 442-446

OPERANT CONDITIONING APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Shaping is also known as the ‘method of successive approximations’ Works best when the desired response has a low probability of occurring naturally Can only shape behaviour if the organism is actually capable of performing the desired response TARGET BEHAVIOUR REINFORCEMENT KK 3E – PAGE 442-446

OPERANT CONDITIONING APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING TOKEN ECONOMIES Is a setting in which an individual receives tokens (reinforcers) for desired behaviour. These tokens can then be exchanged for other reinforcers in the form of actual rewards Examples: Prison tokens for good behaviour may be later exchanged for cigarettes or other goods Points for good grades or good behaviour in school traded in for tuck-shop vouchers Tattslotto tickets Token economies not always shown to change behaviour KK 3E – PAGE 442-446

HOMEWORK LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.20 (pg.446) LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.21 (pg.446-447) LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.22 (pg.447-448) KK 3E – LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.20 (PAGE 446) KK 3E – LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.21 (PAGE 446-447) KK 3E – LEARNING ACTIVITY 11.22 (PAGE 447-448)