FIGURE 1.1 The earth’s atmosphere as viewed from space FIGURE 1.1 The earth’s atmosphere as viewed from space during sunrise. About 90 percent of the earth’s atmosphere is within the bright area and about 70 percent lies below the top of the highest cloud. About 99.9% of atmosphere is below 30 mi (50 km). For comparison diameter of Earth = 7,900 mi (12,760 km). Note: 30/7900 = 0.4%. Paper on a beach ball. Global scale satellite image: http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/products/wximagery/globalwv.html http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/products/wximagery/globalwv.html Fig. 1-1, p.3

Table 1.1. Composition Table 1-1, p.3 Table 1.1. Composition Major permanent gases: N2, O2, Ar Important variable gases: H2O, CO2, O3, CH4, CFCs Aerosols: PM10, PM2.5, others Table 1-1, p.3

N2 and O2 O2 N2 Boiling point: 90 °K or -183 °C or -297 °F)] Nitrogen makes up about 78% of the atmosphere by volume but the atmosphere of Mars contains less than 3% nitrogen. The element seemed so inert that Lavoisier named it azote, meaning "without life". However, its compounds are vital components of foods, fertilizers, and explosives. Nitrogen gas is colorless, odorless, and generally inert. As a liquid it is also colorless and odorless. It was known during the 18th century that air contains at least two gases, one of which supports combustion and life, and the other of which does not. Nitrogen was discovered by Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air, but Scheele, Cavendish, Priestley, and others at about the same time studied "burnt" or "dephlogisticated" air, as air without oxygen was then called. While about one fifth of the atmosphere is oxygen gas, the atmosphere of Mars contains only about 0.15% oxygen. Oxygen is the third most abundant element found in the sun, and it plays a part in the carbon-nitrogen cycle, one process responsible for stellar energy production. Oxygen in excited states is responsible for the bright red and yellow-green colors of the aurora. About two thirds of the human body, and nine tenths of water, is oxygen. The gas is colorless, odorless, and tasteless. Liquid and solid oxygen are pale blue (see picture above) and strongly paramagnetic (contains unpaired electrons). Oxygen is very reactive and oxides of most elements are known. It is essential for respiration of all plants and animals and for most types of combustion. Leonardo da Vinci suggested that air consists of at least two different gases. Before then, air was felt to be an element in its own right. He was also aware that one of these gases supported both flames and life. Oxygen was prepared by several workers before 1772 but these workers did not recognize it as an element. Joseph Priestley is generally credited with its discovery (who made oxygen by heating lead or mercury oxides), but Carl Wilhelm Scheele also reported it independently. The behavior of oxygen and nitrogen as components of air led to the advancement of the phlogiston theory of combustion, which influenced chemists for a century or so, and which delayed an understanding of the nature of air for many years. Ozone (O3) is another allotrope of oxygen. It is formed from electrical discharges or ultraviolet light acting on O2. It is an important component of the atmosphere (in total amounting to the equivalent of a layer about 3 mm thick at ordinary pressures and temperatures) which is vital in preventing harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun from reaching the earth's surface. Undiluted ozone is bluish in color. Liquid ozone is bluish-black, and solid ozone is violet-black. O2 Boiling point: 90 °K or -183 °C or -297 °F)] N2 Boiling point: 77 °K or -196°C or –320 °F

FIGURE 1.3 Measurements of CO2 FIGURE 1.3 Measurements of CO2 in parts per million (ppm) at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii. Higher readings occur in winter when plants die and release CO2 to the atmosphere. Lower readings occur in summer when more abundant vegetation absorbs CO2from the atmosphere. The solid line is the average yearly value. Also called Keeling curve after Charles Keeling Fig. 1-3, p.5

FIGURE 1.2 The earth’s atmosphere - water FIGURE 1.2 The earth’s atmosphere is a rich mixture of many gases, with clouds of condensed water vapor and ice crystals. Here, water evaporates (invisible gas) from the ocean’s surface. Rising air currents then transform the invisible water vapor into many billions of tiny liquid droplets that appear as puffy cumulus clouds. If the rising air in the cloud should extend to greater heights, where air temperatures are quite low, some of the liquid droplets would freeze into minute ice crystals. Fig. 1-2, p.4

FIGURE 1.12 Thunderstorms Fig. 1-12, p.19 FIGURE 1.12 Thunderstorms developing along an approaching cold front. Transport vast quantities of heat energy and mass around the planet. Fig. 1-12, p.19

FIGURE 1.4 Aerosols. Erupting volcanoes FIGURE 1.4 Aerosols. Erupting volcanoes can send tons of particles into the atmosphere, along with vast amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Aerosols can deplete stratospheric ozone. They can also cool the planet by reflecting sunlight back to space. Fig. 1-4, p.6

FIGURE 1.5 Both air pressure and air density FIGURE 1.5 Both air pressure and air density decrease with increasing altitude. Structure of atmosphere can be classified by pressure (mass) or equivalently by density. Fig. 1-5, p.8

FIGURE 1.6 Atmospheric pressure FIGURE 1.6 Atmospheric pressure decreases rapidly with height. Climbing to an altitude of only 5.5 km, where the pressure is 500 mb, would put you above one-half of the atmosphere’s molecules. Commercial aircraft fly at about 10 km (30,000 ft, or 90 mb). Mt. Lemmon is about 3 km (9000 ft, or 700 mb). TUS is at about 0.6 km (2400 ft) 930 mb Fig. 1-6, p.9

FIGURE 1.7 Layers of the atmosphere FIGURE 1.7 Layers of the atmosphere as related to the average profile of air temperature above the earth’s surface. The heavy line illustrates how the average temperature varies in each layer. Structure of atmosphere can be classified by temperature too. This is most common “structure” used. Fig. 1-7, p.10

The radiosonde p.11 The radiosonde with parachute and balloon. Measures T, P, km, winds as it rises through the atmosphere. Released twice a day at 00Z and 12Z, throughout the developed world in order to draw upper atmosphere weather maps. To get TUS time just subtract 7 hours from “Zulu” time, e.g., 12z = 5 am Tucson time, 00z = 24-7 = 17:00 = 5 pm Tucson time. p.11

FIGURE 1.8 Layers of the atmosphere FIGURE 1.8 Layers of the atmosphere based on temperature (redline), composition (green line), and electrical properties (blue line). Other ways of classifying the structure of the atmosphere. Fig. 1-8, p.12

FIGURE 1.10 This satellite image FIGURE 1.10 This satellite image (taken in visible reflected light) shows a variety of cloud patterns and storms in the earth’s atmosphere. Fig. 1-10, p.16

FIGURE 1.11 Simplified surface weather map FIGURE 1.11 Simplified surface weather map that correlates with the satellite image shown in Fig. 1.10.The shaded green area represents precipitation. The numbers on the map represent air temperatures in °F. Fig. 1-11, p.17

FIGURE 1.13 The ice storm Fig. 1-13, p.20 FIGURE 1.13 The ice storm of January, 1998. Fig. 1-13, p.20

FIGURE 1.14 Tornadoes Fig. 1-14, p.21 FIGURE 1.14 Tornadoes annually inflict widespread damage and cause the loss of many lives. Fig. 1-14, p.21

FIGURE 1.15 Flooding FIGURE 1.15 Flooding during April,1997, inundates Grand Forks, North Dakota, as flood waters of the Red River extend overmuch of the city. Fig. 1-15, p.21

FIGURE 1.16 Lightning Fig. 1-16, p.22 FIGURE 1.16 Estimates are that lightning strikes the earth about 100times every second. About 25 million lightning strikes hit the United States each year. Consequently, lightning is a very common, and sometimes deadly, weather phenomenon. Fig. 1-16, p.22

Fig. 1. We live at the bottom of a swirling ocean of air We live at the bottom of a swirling ocean of air. Here, air billowing up from the earth’s surface forms into clouds and thunderstorms over the warm landmass of North America. Fig. 1-CO, p.xviii

Important Professional Organizations 1.    Some Important Professional Organizations a.    NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)             i.      NWS (National Weather Service) b.    NASA (National Space Administration) c.    UCAR (University Corporation for Atmospheric Research)             i.      NCAR (National Center for Atmospheric Research) d.    AMS (American Meteorological Society) e.    AGU (American Geophysical Union)