Final Exam Review 2015-2016

Scientific Processes If…. Then…. Because format Hypothesis Variable that is measured in an experiment? Dependent Variable A planned procedure to test a hypothesis? Experiment Most important safety rule? Always follow directions When in doubt about what to do during a lab __________. Ask the teacher before you begin Order of scientific investigation? Observation, Question, Hypothesis, Controlled testing, and Conclusions Repeating the same test gives valid data Scientific Processes

Chemical Label Highest = 4 (most dangerous) Lowest = 0 (least dangerous) Chemical Label

Characteristics of life All living things are made of one or cells Requires energy (metabolism) Undergo growth and development Heredity Reproduce (making more of your own kind) Maintain stable internal environment-homeostasis Respond to stimuli Biology is the study of life Characteristics of life

Cell Theory All living things are composed of cells Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living things 3. New cells are produced from existing cells Bacteria are single celled and lack most cell organelles Cell Theory

Microscopes Numbers = quantitative data Magnification = Ocular x Objective Ex. Eyepiece (Ocular) is 10x. Objective is 4x. Overall magnification equals 40X. Observations = qualitative data *Size measured in micrometer (μm) Microscopes

Cell Organization Molecule Organelle Cells Tissue Organ Organ System Individual organism Cell Organization

Organic Compounds All living things are made of organic compounds. Contain the element Carbon. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids provide energy for metabolism. (Not water!) Organic Compounds Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrates Monomer- monosaccharide (glucose) Polymer/macromolecule- polysaccharide (chitin, cellulose, starch) Function- our best source of quick energy! Contains- Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen Examples: starch (bread, potatoes) glycogen (beef muscle) cellulose (lettuce, corn) Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose, galactose (simple sugars) Carbohydrates

Lipids Lipid vs. water Monomer- fatty acids and glycerol Function- stored energy and insulation Examples: fats and steroids 2 layers of phospholipids Lipids Picture of Gulf Oil spill – oil and water don’t mix! Lipids are soluble in oil Lipids are water resistant Lipid vs. water

Nucleic Acids Monomer- nucleotide Function- carry genetic information Ex. 2 types of Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA DNA controls traits through the order of its nitrogen bases Nucleic Acids

Proteins Monomer- amino acids Function- building and repairing cells, communication, transport, & regulation Examples: enzymes, hemoglobin, collagen Production: Ribosomes, E.R., Golgi apparatus Proteins

Enzymes act on substrate Catalysts in living things Ex: controls reaction rate for photosynthesis Specific to a particular substrate Reusable Affected by temperature and pH Critical in synthesis of molecules Reduce activation energy Catalase 2 H2O2 ----> 2 H2O + O2 Each cell contains THOUSANDS of enzymes, each promoting a different chemical reactions Enzymes act on substrate Enzymes (proteins) Bonding sites of enzymes fit like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle

Cells * All cells have genetic material (DNA) Prokaryotes Eukaryotes No nucleus (DNA=cytoplasm) Simple, no membrane bound organelles Bacteria only One circular chromosome Includes: chromosome, ribosomes, and plasma membrane Eukaryotes Membrane bound organelles Plants and Animals True nucleus containing chromosomes (DNA=nucleus) * All cells have genetic material (DNA)

Nucleus Regulates the activities of the cell “Control Center” Contains chromosomes * Chromosomal DNA contains hereditary material that tells the cell what proteins to make. Nucleus

Endoplasmic Reticulum An extensive folded membrane forming compartments in the cell that is used for transporting substances. Surface holds ribosomes (Rough E.R.) “Highway” within the cell. Smooth ER aids in forming lipids. Endoplasmic Reticulum

Golgi Body/ Complex/ Apparatus Stack of membranes that package and send proteins to be used in other parts of the cell. “UPS” packages, modifies, and ships proteins in the cell. Golgi Body/ Complex/ Apparatus

Mitochondria Singular: Mitochondrion Identify me “Powerhouse”of the cell Produces energy in the form of ATP Site of Aerobic respiration Can see under a Microscope Mitochondria Singular: Mitochondrion

Vacuole Storage of excess materials Plant cells usually contain one large vacuole - pressure from this large vacuole helps plants support themselves Vacuole

Ribosomes Proteins are synthesized here Found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes Bonding of amino acids forms the protein (peptide bonds) Ribosomes

Plasma Membrane aka: Cell Membrane Surrounds the cell Regulates what enters/leaves the cell (selectively permeable) Helps maintain homeostasis (maintain equilibrium-thermostat) Made of phospholipids with embedded proteins Plasma Membrane aka: Cell Membrane

Cell Wall Plant cells ONLY Thick ridge layer that surrounds the plant and provides support and strength. Made of cellulose (plant fiber for our diet) Cell Wall

Chloroplast Site of photosynthesis Plant cells ONLY Contains thylakoids which capture solar energy so it can be converted into chemical energy (pigment –chlorophyll) Green because it REFLECTS green light Thylakoids

Lysosomes Recycling and removing waste in the cell. Contains enzymes “Clean-Up crew” Lysosomes

Carbon dioxide + water  Sugars + oxygen CO2 + H2O  C6H12O6 + O2 Plants“look green”because they green wavelengths of light. Photosynthesis Reaction: Carbon dioxide + water  Sugars + oxygen CO2 + H2O  C6H12O6 + O2 reflect Photosynthesis in plants takes place inside which organelle? Chloroplasts Photosynthesis, Carbohydrate, Saccharide Light energy converted to chemical energy.

Which gas that we need is given off during photosynthesis? Oxygen Photosynthesis provides which necessary molecule for the cell? * Glucose Factors that can affect the rate of photosynthesis: temperature – (slower) availability of water color of light light intensity amount of C02 Because of photosynthesis…. atmosphere is rich in oxygen removes CO2 from the atmosphere Photosynthesis

Cellular Respiration Enzymes C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H20 + ATP How chemical energy stored in glucose is released to form ATP. Occurs in the Mitochondria. BOTH Animals and Plants. Absence of oxygen = fermentation Cellular Respiration Reactants-carry out Enzymes C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H20 + ATP Glucose Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water Energy

AEROBIC vs ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION Used to release energy (ATP) for cellular use C6H12O6+6O26H2O+6CO2+ATP ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION AEROBIC RESPIRATION Does not use oxygen Makes Small amount of ATP (2) Happens in cytoplasm (cytosol) Also called fermentation YEASTS make ethyl alcohol BACTERIA and MUSCLE CELLS (w/o O2) make LACTIC ACID ******Products include CO2 and lactic acid or alcohol Requires oxygen Makes A LOT of ATP (36-38) Produces carbon dioxide and water Happens in mitochondrion AEROBIC vs ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Eukaryotes Plant Animal Cell wall Chloroplast Central vacuole (large) Eu = True Karyon = Nucleus

Movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration until equilibrium is reached: Diffusion Difference in concentration in one place compared to another: Concentration gradient Cell transport

Form of passive transport (NO ENERGY NEEDED) across a membrane Solutes move from high concentration to low concentration (down their concentration gradient) Diffusion

Diffusion of water (also passive transport) Osmosis

Osmosis Isotonic: Same (Same solute/Same water) 2. Hypertonic: Over 3 Possible Directions of Water Movement: Isotonic: Same (Same solute/Same water) 2. Hypertonic: Over (More solute/Less water) 3. Hypotonic: Under (Less solute/More water) Osmosis

Particles moving against the concentration gradient which REQUIRES ENERGY (ATP) Low concentration to high concentration Active Transport

DNA / RNA DNA/RNA made of a chain of nucleotides Nucleotides contain a sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogen base Carry genetic code for the organism’s traits DNA controls traits through the order of its- Nitrogen Bases Rosalind Franklin – took X-ray photograph to determine? Double-helix structure Sequence of DNA determines? Provides instructions for traits DNA / RNA

DNA / RNA DNA Double stranded “Double Helix” Four nitrogen bases : ATGC Sugar is Deoxyribose Found in nucleus What does X represent? RNA Single stranded Four nitrogen bases: AUCG Sugar is Ribose DNA / RNA

DNA Base Pair Rules G = C A = T Where are the weakest bonds? Between the nitrogen bases DNA Base Pair Rules

Replication Happens in INTERPHASE Making of an identical strand of DNA “semi” conservative Happens in INTERPHASE Replication

Gene Expression/ Protein Synthesis DNA  mRNA  Proteins / Polypeptides / Amino acid chain Transcription Translation (In nucleus) (In cytoplasm on the ribosome) Remember, genes are made of DNA and are in the nucleus. Genes (DNA) contain the instructions for making  a protein. In transcription, DNA is used to make mRNA in the nucleus. mRNA then leaves the nucleus and goes to the ribosome. In translation, tRNA then brings amino acids in the proper order to make the protein on the ribosome. Gene Expression/ Protein Synthesis

RNA

Transcription DNAmRNA Occurs in nucleus Complementary mRNA strand is produced from a segment of DNA RNA Base Pairing Rules A – U C – G Transcription

Translation A- amino acid B- tRNA C- anticodon D- codon E- mRNA Connects amino acids in the correct order to make a protein Occurs in the cytoplasm within the ribosomes A- amino acid B- tRNA C- anticodon D- codon E- mRNA F- Ribosome G-polypeptide

Codon Sequence of three mRNA nucleotides that code for an amino acid READING THE CODON CHART: Be sure to use mRNA What amino acids is coded for by the DNA ATA GAG? DNA: ATA GAG mRNA: UAU CUC AA: tyrosine leucine Codon

Mutations Sickle Cell Mutation Change in DNA code May cause a change in protein or result in no protein being produced NOT always harmful Normal 1-2-3-4-5-6 Deletion 1-2-4-5-6 Removes information from the gene Sickle Cell Mutation Point mutation: change in a single nucleotide base

That’s all folks!