Trends in Ottoman decline 1. Sultans 2. Finances - slowing conquests, competition in trade, high war expenses 3. Quality of military

1683 Ottomans fail to take Vienna (again)

Trends in Ottoman decline 4. Decentralisation 1832-40 Mehmet Ali (r. 1805-48) leads rebellion in Egypt, occupies Syria and parts of Asia Minor

1768-74 Russians take Crimea. Black Sea soon follows 1798-1801 French occupy Egypt 1830 Serbia gains independence 1833 Greece gains independence 1839 British occupy Aden in Yemen

1826 Mahmud II (r. 1808-39) destroys janissaries, suppresses Bektashi Sufis Ottoman Reforms 1. Replacement of janissaries with new European-style army 2. Reform of government along European lines, though parliament really only in 1908 3. Emphasis on equality and justice

1866 Parts of Romania gain independence 1877 Russians attack Ottoman empire. Peace made, and parts of Bulgaria gain independence 1882 British invade Egypt 1911 Italians occupy part of Libya 1912-13 Two Balkan wars. Ottoman territory passes into Greek, Serbian and Bulgarian hands

Forms of Political Expression (1) Ottomanism - loyalty to sultans and homeland, regardless of ethnicity Pan-Islamism - unity on basis of shared religion, view Muslim world’s troubles as due to corrupt practice of faith Pan-Turkism - unity of Turkish peoples, promotion of Turkish culture and origins

Forms of Political Expression (2) Pan-Arabism - advocating religious tolerance, blaming Muslim world’s troubles on importation of non-Arab influences Zionism/Jewish Nationalism - growing in Palestine, advocating return of Jews to Promised Land. Opposed by many Jews in Ottoman state. Viewed by pan-Arab nationalists and Ottomans as attempt to secure unilateral Jewish control of Palestine