Effective Learning The educational process About knowledge About learning Cognitive load theory Cognitive theory of multimedia learning Metacognition Critical thinking Tools for knowledge representation and thinking Active Learning Learning Styles

The Educational Process ? The Educational Process Value the educational process … not just the degree 1-1

The Educational Process What is education? What are its goals? Socrates Education is the kindling of a flame, not the filling of a vessel Martin Luther King Jr. Intelligence plus character---that is the goal of true education C. S. Lewis Education without values, as useful as it is, seems rather to make man a more clever devil Carl Rogers The only person who is educated is the one who has learned how to learn and change 1-2

The Educational Process Goals of the educational process (source: Dictionary.com) Impart knowledge Develop the powers of reasoning & judgment Prepare intellectually for a mature life 1-3

Defining knowledge The word “knowledge” of common parlance has several connotations See what famous persons have said about knowledge: Albert Einstein Information is not knowledge Any fool can know. The point is to understand T. S. Eliot Where is all the knowledge we lost with information? Alfred Tennyson Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers 2-1

Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Learning Domains 2-2

Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Learning Domains Keywords (verbs) of categories of the Cognitive Domain Category Verbs describing activities in category Creating Combine, design, generate Evaluating Appraise, assess, justify Analyzing Compare, contrast, separate … Applying Compute, construct, predict … Understanding Comprehend, explain, summarize … Remembering Define, describe, identify Different verbs can be used to describe Internet activities, e.g., bookmarking, annotating. Complexity 2-3

How Should We Learn? Vygotsky Ausubel Wittrock Merrill Language and social interaction are fundamental means of education Learning occurs just above a learner’s current competence level Ausubel Learners associate new knowledge with existing concepts in their mental structures Wittrock Make students responsible for building relations between new subject-matter and own knowledge Merrill Provide cognitive structure for prior and new knowledge 3-1

How Do We Learn? There are several theories of learning We describe Gagne’s learning theory Gagne defined a “learning outcome” as change in behaviour of a learner due to a learning experience Learning behaviour is determined by state of learning of a learner Instructor provides stimulii that result in changes in the state of learning A learner shows “improved bahaviour” after learning 3-2

Gagne’s Theory of Learning Learner before learning Old Behaviour of learner Stimulus-response associations (realize learning) Response is a change in internal conditions Internal conditions Represent prior learning Learning outcome External Condition (stimulus) Learner’s mind Create Cause New Behaviour of learner Events of instruction Learner after learning 3-3

Gagne’s Theory of Learning Three of the five categories of learning outcomes -Executive control processes: when and how to use intellectual skills & decl. knowledge -Learning outcome: Problem solving, learning, thinking Cognitive strategies (Techniques of thinking, analyzing, solving) Argue, assess, compare, predict -Nos, language, concepts about environment -Learning outcome: Applying simple rules to a class of situations Intellectual skills (“Knowing how to”: Procedural knowledge) Classify, identify, select, apply, schedule Recall of organized bodies of knowledge Learning outcome: Ability to meaningfully reconstruct and state in sentences Verbal information (“Knowing that”: Declarative knowledge) Complexity Verbs: Arrange, identify, recognize, recall 3-4

Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) Cognitive load theory characterizes the mental effort involved in learning activities 4-1

Cognitive Load Theory Cognitive load theory integrates our knowledge of cognitive structures and instructional design principles Human cognitive architecture has a long-term memory, a working memory, and short-term sensory memories Most human cognitive activity is determined by information held in long-term memory This information has been learnt in order to cognitively adapt to the environment; it is in the form of schemas Learning is defined as alteration in the long-term memory Cognitive information is actually processed in working memory It results in formation of schemas 4-2

Cognitive Load Theory Used during Can store only 7±2 elements for only a few seconds Non-schema data is searched randomly Schemas must be formed and transferred to Long-term memory Stores knowledge in the form of schemas Schema categorizes multiple information elements as a single element (e.g., objects & relationships) In absence of knowledge, processing is by trial-and-error Used during Cognitive activity Use may be automatic Figure from Novak, 2006 4-3

Cognitive Load Theory Understanding occurs when all relevant info items can be processed simultaneously in working memory (WM) If number of information items required exceeds the size of working memory Schemas must be formed; it reduces the number of items Forming schemas by trial-and-error consumes time; it delays understanding Imperfect understanding occurs if schemas cannot be formed in time 4-4

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning Cognitive load has three components Intrinsic cognitive load is the cognitive load due to natural complexity of information processing in a subject Germane cognitive load is caused by schema formation while learning Extraneous cognitive load is caused by the manner in which information is presented to a learner. For example, Problem solving causes large extraneous load because it causes heavy load on working memory that interferes with schema forming Means-ends analysis causes large extraneous load 5-1

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning Also called propositional model Spoken words Written words Pictures Integration of verbal and pictorial models with each other & with prior knowledge 5-2

Design of Multimedia Instruction Combining text and pictures Their manner of presentation should facilitate integration It can happen if text and pictures are Semantically related (coherence condition) Presented closely together (contiguity condition) Temporal contiguity : At the same time Spatial contiguity : Visually close to one another Lack of spatial contiguity causes split-attention condition, which increases the cognitive effort Printed words appearing close to a picture reduce the split-attention effect 5-3

Design of Multimedia Instruction Cognitive Load Reduction in MMI (Mayer, Moreno, 2003) Three kinds of cognitive demands Essential processing Making sense of the presented material Incidental processing Not essential, but required by the design of learning task, e.g., processing background music, animation, etc. Representational processing Processes aimed at holding a mental representation in working memory over a period of time, e.g., in case of split-attention 5-4

Metacognition* Metacognition is “thinking about thinking”, i.e., thinking about one’s own thinking processes such as Study skills Memory capabilities Ability to monitor learning Source: Wikipedia 6-1

Metacognitive strategies Metacognition Metacognition has 2 components: Metacognitive knowledge: Knowledge about cognitive processes, which can be used to control cognitive processes. Flavell (1979) divided it into 3 kinds of knowledge Declarative knowledge Knowledge about Person variables - Knowledge of how humans learn and process info - Knowledge about one’s own learning process Procedural knowledge Knowledge about Task variables - Knowledge about nature of task and its processing demands - Sequential processes used by a person to control cognitive activities - Knowledge about when and where to use them Conditional knowledge Metacognitive strategies 2. Metacognitive regulation: Use M. knowledge to reach cognitive goal 6-2

Metacognition Metacognitive regulation: Contains 3 skills Planning: Appropriate selection of strategies and correct allocation of resources Monitoring: Be aware of one’s comprehensive and task performance Evaluating: Appraise the final product of a task and efficiency of its performance. Re-evaluate strategies if needed 6-3

Powers of Reasoning and Judgment Rene Descartes I think; therefore I am Confucius He who learns but does not think, is lost! Thomas A Edison Five percent of the people think; ten percent of the people think they think; and the other eighty-five percent would rather die than think Stephen King The thought process can never be complete without articulation 7-1

How Should We Think? We should use purposeful and reflective judgment in deciding what to believe and what to do in response to Observations Experience Verbal or written expressions Arguments It is called critical thinking 7-2

Critical Thinking Example: How to obtain answer to a question by using web resources? Analyze the information available from multiple sources Validate the information from each source, rejecting unreliable/illogical information Correlate information from various sources to make a cohesive whole Take care of differences in terminology used in various sources Express the answer effectively 7-3

Critical Thinking A critical thinker* Raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely Gathers and assesses relevant information Comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions Thinks open-mindedly about alternatives Communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems; without being unduly influenced by others A critical thinker examines and improves own thinking It is a portable skill; it helps in all aspects of life *Source: Wikipedia 7-4

Tools for Representing Knowledge and Thinking Many issues can be tackled effectively if knowledge can be represented Planning a course or curriculum Checking whether a learner has prerequisites or prior learning Detecting misconceptions in a learner’s mind Evaluating whether learning has occurred in a course Represent knowledge before and after a course and compare Two widely used tools are Concept Maps Vee Diagrams 8-1

Concept Map Concept map for “Why seasons occur” A free online concept mapping tool: IHMC CmapTools http://cmap.ihmc.us Figure from Novak, 2006 8-2

Vee Diagram The Vee diagram is based on the view that “knowledge is constructed” and not “discovered” Construction of new knowledge begins with our observations of events or objects through the concepts we already possess We make records of our observations and use them while constructing knowledge Thus, concepts, events or objects, and observations are key elements of knowledge construction A focus question determines the scope of the inquiry 8-3

Vee Diagram 2 1 Path enables thinking based on events/objects in focus Methods guided by stated principles Given info Prior knowledge Path enables thinking based on events/objects in focus 1 Path enables construction of an answer 2 8-4

Active Learning Quotes related to active learning Benjamin Franklin Tell me and I forget, teach me and I may remember, involve me and I learn Phil Collins In learning you will teach, and in teaching you will learn Will Rogers A man only learns in two ways, one by reading, and the other by association with smarter people 9-1

Active Learning In active learning, learners are responsible for their own learning. Typically, they are expected to achieve learning by actively participating it learning activities It requires learners to have a background in the topic Some active learning techniques Think-pair-share: Learners first work in pairs, and then share their results with the class Learning by teaching: Learners take turns teaching to one another Collaborative learning groups 9-2

Active Learning Source: Internet 9-3

Learning Styles The learning style of a learner indicates how the learner prefers to receive and process information There are several dimensions to the learning style* Perception: What type of information is preferred by a learner? Input: Which external channel (visual / audio) is preferred for receiving information? Organization: What kind of organization of material (facts / principles) is preferred? Processing: How does the learner prefer to process information? Understanding: How does the learner progress toward understanding? * Felder and Silverman, Engg Edu 1988 10-1

Learning Styles What is your style? 10-2

Learning Styles Perception: Sensing and Intuitive learners Sensing learners like observing, gathering data through senses Sensing learners like facts, data, and experimentation Intuitive learners like speculation, imagination, hunches Intuitive learners prefer principles and theories They like symbols and can translate them into their meanings Input: Visual and auditory learners Visual learners remember best what they see Pictures, diagrams, films, demonstrations Auditory learners remember sounds, words Most persons are visual learners 10-3

Learning Styles Organization: Inductive learners proceed from data to generalities; deductive learners go in opposite direction Inductive style is the natural human learning style Deductive style is natural teaching style for technical subjects Processing: Active and reflective learners Active learners work well in group Reflective learners work better by themselves or in pairs Understanding: Sequential and global learners Sequential learners can learn material as it is presented Global learners understand in fits and starts Sequential learners: good in analysis, global learners: synthesis 10-4