The “Five Good Emperors” 96-98 AD Reign of Nerva Institution of augustus (emperor)/caesar (partner) system (with Trajan) Consultation of senate Senators from provinces

The “Five Good Emperors” 98-117 AD Reign of Trajan 117-38 AD Reign of Hadrian Fixing borders of slightly reduced empire Division of civil and military spheres of government, with more people running state

The “Five Good Emperors” 138-61 AD Reign of Antoninus Pius 161-80 AD Reign of Marcus Aurelius Barbarian attacks, plague and their impact

Problems in the Roman Empire, 2nd-3rd c. AD Increasing attacks on borders Increasingly centralised government Increasing influence of non-Italians in society, government, the army Increased militarisation of state

235 Army murders Severus Alexander 235-84 Period of crisis: civil and external wars, plague, economic crisis, raised taxes 259 Persians defeat Roman army and capture Valerian (r. 253-60) Diocletian (r. 284-305) Constantine (r. 306-37)

Diocletian’s Reforms Multiple capitals: closer links between local governments and imperial government, so swifter responses Reforms of army: imperial bodyguards, mobile army and border defence forces. Soldiers no longer in civil administration Reforms of coinage, pricing, state building projects, annona (universal land tax)

Diocletian’s Reforms Improving loyalty by presenting self as earthly manifestation of Jupiter. Persecuting Christians

Diocletian’s Reforms Augusti: Diocletian Maximian Caesars: Galerius Constantius

Diocletian’s Reforms Retired 305: Diocletian Maximian Augusti: Galerius Constantius Caesars: Disputed 306 Constantine (son of Constantius) acclaimed by troops as emperor 312 Battle of Milvian Bridge. Constantine becomes an augustus (co-emperor)

313 Constantine makes Christianity official religion of the empire, though others tolerated 324 Constantine becomes sole emperor, establishes new capital at Byzantion (Constantinople): “Nova Roma Constantinopolitana” (New Rome, the City of Constantine)

332 Constantine repels Goths 337 Death of Constantine. Sons fight over succession 337-61 Reign of Constantius II 353 Constantius II reunites empire 356 Constantius bans public paganism 361-63 Reign of Julian (the Apostate)

Problems of the Late 4th Century Divergence of Eastern and Western Empires Foreign involvement: Settlement of barbarians in east Valentinian II (r. 375-92), Western Roman Emperor, plus successor, puppets of Arbogast the Frank Brief reunification under Theodosius (r. 379-95) in 394, but does not last

The End End 4th c. Accession of young emperors. Power held by regents, mostly from military or female relatives of emperors. Barbarians being bribed to fight each other 476 Last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus (r. 475-76), deposed by Odoacer the Ostrogoth. End of Roman Empire in west. Eastern Roman Empire remains until conquered by Ottomans in 1453, usually called Byzantine Empire

Aelius Spartianus Purported author of biography of Hadrian, first of set of biographies of emperors known as Historia Augusta One of six purported authors of the Historia, but seems more likely that the work was written by a single author in the 4th c. AD

Eutropius (fl. latter half 4th c.) Roman historian. Held office of secretary at imperial court in Constantinople Wrote history of Rome, Breviarium Historiae Romanae (Compendium of Roman History), covering foundation to reign of Valens (r. 364-78), to whom is dedicated