Psychology Chapter 1: Introducing Psychology

Section 1

Why Study Psychology? Psychology can provide insight into behavior and give one the chance to acquire practical information Psychology – the scientific study of behavior and mental processes that are tested through scientific research Psychologists differ in how much importance they place on specific types of behavior. They do agree that the study of behavior must be systematic. Physiological: Organism’s physical processes Cognitive: Organism’s thinking and understanding

The Goals of Psychology Description Explanation Prediction Influence

Goals of Psychology Description – 1st goal is to describe or gather information about the behavior begin studied and to present what is known Explanation – they seek to explain why. Hypothesis – an educated guess about some phenomenon. Theory – a complex explanation based on findings from a large number of experimental studies. Theories change as more information is gathered. Prediction – 3rd goal is to predict, form the knowledge gathered, what things will do, think or feel in various situations. By studying past behaviors, future behavior can be predicted. Influence – Basic Science – research as compared to Applied Science – discovering ways to use scientific findings to accomplish practical goals.

Why Study Psychology cont. The Scientific Basis of Psychology Psychologists rely on the Scientific Method – a general approach to gathering information and answering questions so that errors and biases are minimized Identify a problem or question Formulate a hypothesis Collect data though observation and experimentation Analyze the data

Basic Vs. Applied Science Basic Science: Pursuit of knowledge for its own sake Applied Science: Discovering ways to use scientific findings to accomplish practical goals

Section 2

Origins of Psychology 5th and 6th century BC – the Greeks began to study human behavior and decided that people’s lives were influenced more by their minds than by gods Mid-1500’s – Nicolaus Copernicus Earth was not the center of the universe, during the Renaissance period, experimentation through observation 17th Century – Rene Descartes Others popularized dualism – the mind and body are separate and distinct Descartes said there was a link, he assumed that the mind and body influence one another to create a person’s experiences

A Brief History of Psychology cont. Historical Approaches Structuralism Established modern psychology as a separate formal field of study Wilhelm Wundt started this Structuralism – the study of the basic elements of human experience Introspection – a method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings Functionalism William James – the fathers of psychology in America Functionalism – the study of how animals and people adapt to their environments

Historical Approaches continued… 3. Inheritable Traits Sir Francis Galton Study of seeing if genetics/hereditary factors played a role in abilities, character and behavior Debate is still ongoing regarding genetics versus environment 4. Gestalt Psychology A group of German psychologists disagreed with the principles of structuralism and behaviorism Believed that the whole pattern or Gestalt, was important

A Brief History of Psychology cont. Contemporary Approaches Psychoanalytic Psychology Sigmund Freud Interested in the unconscious mind, beneath the surface are primitive biological urges that are in conflict with the requirements of society and morality Believed that unconscious motivations and conflicts were responsible for most human behavior Had a method for indirectly studying unconscious processes Free Association – a patient says everything that comes to mind, no matter how absurd or irrelevant it may seem, without attempting to produce logical or meaningful statements No editing or censoring their thoughts Psychoanalysis – the study of how unconscious motives and conflicts determine human behavior

A Brief History of Psychology cont. Behavioral Psychology Ivan Pavlov Dog experiment with salivation/Classical Conditioning John B. Watson Believed that psychologists should only deal with observable facts of behavior; all behavior is a result of conditioning and occurs because a stimuli is present B.F. Skinner Introduced the concept of reinforcement/Operant Conditioning Reinforcement – a response to a behavior that increase the likelihood the behavior will be repeated Humanistic Psychology Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollo May Human nature is evolving and self-directed Environment and outside forces are just the background to our own growth, they don’t influence us Each person is unique and has a self-concept and potential to develop fully

A Brief History of Psychology cont. Cognitive Psychology Jean Piaget Focuses on how we process, store and use information and how this information influences our thinking, language, problem solving, and creativity Behavior is influenced by a variety of mental processes like perception, memories and expectations Biological Psychology Emphasizes the impact of biology on our behavior Study how the brain, CNS, hormones and genetics influence our behavior Use PET and CAT scans as tools Sociocultural Psychology The study of the influence of cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on behavior and social functioning Our knowledge, ways of thinking, feeling and behaving are dependent on the culture we belong to

Inheritable Traits: Gestalt Psychology: Influence of heredity on human thought and behavior Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) Gestalt Psychology: Human sensation and perception Gestalt: “whole pattern”(e.g. chair vs. seat, legs, back, etc.) Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)

Section 3

Psychology as a Profession What is a Psychologist Psychologist – people who have been trained to observe, analyze and evaluate behavior Usually have a doctorate in Pyschology Psychiatrist - a physician who studies the mind and behavior of humans; is a medical doctor (MD) and can prescribe medicine and/or operate on patients Psychiatrist differs in that it is a specialty of medicine. They are medical students who do their residency in a psych ward or psych hospital

Types of Psychogist Clinical Psychologist – help people deal with their personal problems Work in mental hospitals, private offices, prisons and clinics ½ of psychologists specialize in clinical psychology Counseling Psychologist – usually work in schools or industrial firms Help people adjust to the challenges of life Most states require a doctorate to be a clinical and counseling psychologist

Psychology as a Profession cont. Other types of Psychologists School psychologists – help students with emotional and learning problems Social Psychologists – study groups and how they influence behavior Developmental Psychologists – study physical, emotional, cognitive and social changes that occur throughout life They study children, the elderly and the process of dying for example Educational Psychologists – deal with topics related to teaching children and young adults, such as memory, intelligence, teaching methods, and develop new instructional devices. Experimental Psychologists – perform research to understand how humans (and animals) operate physically and psychologically

The Scientific Method in Psychology Question Hypothesis Experiment Results Conclusions Theory

CHAPTER 2 SECTION 1

Pre-Research Decisions Sample: Small group of participants, out of a total population, that a researcher studies Representative vs. Non-representative

Methods of Research Naturalistic Observation: Case Studies: Surveys: Observation of subject(s) in a natural setting without interfering (e.g. watching teenagers in a mall) Case Studies: Intensive investigation of participant(s) (e.g. long-term interviews, journals, video blogs) Surveys: Information is obtained by asking many individuals a fixed set of questions (e.g. questionnaire)

Methods of Research Longitudinal Studies: Cross-Sectional Studies: Studying a group of participants over a number of years (e.g. following a group of high school freshmen throughout their high school career) Cross-Sectional Studies: Studying groups of participants of different ages and comparing them to draw conclusions about age (e.g. studying a group of freshmen and seniors) Experiments: Studying participants in a controlled laboratory setting

Experiments Experiments begin with a hypothesis (e.g. “Caffeine improves test performance”)

Experiments Experimenters must employ variables: Independent Variable: Manipulated/changed by experimenter to observe its effects (e.g. Coffee/Redbull) Dependent Variable: The effects/changes that occur in relation to the independent variable (e.g. improved test performance)

Experiments Experimenters divide participants into two groups: Experimental Group: Independent variable is applied (e.g. Coffee is given to participants) Control Group: Treated the same way as experimental group, but independent variable is not applied (e.g. No coffee is given to participants)

Chapter 2 Section 2

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Researcher’s expectations influence his/her own behavior, and thereby influence the participant’s behavior (e.g. thinking a subject will respond in a certain way, and unassumingly acting in a manner that will cause the subject to then do so)

Avoiding a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Single-Blind Experiment: Participants are unaware of which participants received the treatment (e.g. participants do not know which participants received “Red Bull”) Double-Blind Experiment: Participants and experimenter(s) are unaware of which participants received the treatment (e.g. participants and experimenter(s) do not know which participants received “Red Bull”)

Placebo Effect Placebo Effect: A change in a participant’s behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect, rather than the actual treatment (e.g. participant thinks he is receiving “Red Bull,” but instead receives non-caffeinated soda, and still “feels energized”)

Ethics in Research The methods of conduct/standards for proper and responsible behavior among psychological researchers In 1992, the American Psychological Association (A.P.A.) published a series of ethical principles regarding the collection, storage, and use of psychological data

Ethical Principles All ethical problems must be resolved before research has begun Research must minimize the possibilities of misleading results The dignity, welfare, and confidentiality of all participants are to be protected

Psychologists are responsible for all research they perform, or is performed by others under their supervision Psychologists must obey all state and federal laws and regulations, in addition to professional standards governing research With the exception of anonymous surveys, naturalistic observations, and similar research, psychologists must reach an agreement regarding the rights and responsibilities of both participants and researcher(s) before research has begun

When consent is required, psychologists must obtain a signed, informed consent before starting any research with a participant Deception is used only if no better alternative is available; under no circumstance is there deception about (negative) aspects that might influence a participant’s willingness to participate Other subjective issues (depending on individual research): Sharing/Utilizing data Offering incentives Minimizing evasiveness (“tricking” participants) Providing participants with information about the study

*During the late 20th century the use of animals in research has caused much concern and debate; Use of animals in research is subjective, and at the discretion of the A.P.A.