Discourse

Discourse Definition Language use beyond sentence Language use in contexts Social practice

Text Discourse is realised by texts Communication happens in text Text is central to discourse analysis What is text?

TEXT CULTURE Genre (Purpose) Situation Who is involved? (Tenor) Subject matter Channel (Field) (Mode) Register TEXT

Text It is a semantic unit. Something is called a text when it is meaningful. It is spoken and written. It is not a phonological or a graphological unit. It occurs in a context of situation.

There are three elements Context of situation There are three elements Subject matter (field) Participants involved (tenor) Channel (mode)

Context of culture Every culture produces text types. A text type is a genre Two general purposes: Transactional and Interpersonal genres Transactional: to get something done Interpersonal: for different purposes of communication

Basic English genres Procedure Descriptive Narrative Recount report News item Discussion Explanation Exposition Review

Text analysis Needs linguistic analysis Interpretation is based on linguistic evidence Text analysts need the right ‘knife’ to cut the right ‘bread’ Different ‘knives’ for different ‘bread’

Discourse analysis How texts relate to contexts of situation and context of culture How texts are produced as a social practice What texts tell us about happenings, what people think, believe etc. How texts represent ideology (power struggle etc.)

Text & Discourse Analyses (Nunan, 1993) Text analysis is the study of formal linguistic devices that distinguish a text from random sentences. Discourse analysts study these text-forming devices with reference to the purposes and functions for which the discourse was produced, and the context within which the discourse was created. The ultimate goal is to show how the linguistic elements enable language users to communicate.

Communication Exchange of meanings Happens in texts See the following diagram on stratification and metafunctions

Discourse Semantic Level CULTURAL LEVEL Discourse Semantic Level Textual Interpersonal Lexicogrammatical Level Ideational Phonology/ Graphology Level

Stratification Discourse semantic level Lexico-grammatical level Phonological / graphological level All of these are related by realisation

Metafunctions (Abstract Meanings) Ideational meanings Interpersonal meanings Textual meanings Logical meanings

Ideational Meanings Meanings about phenomena About things and goings on About circumstances surrounding the happenings and doings Realised in wordings through Participants, Processes and Circumstancees Centrally influenced by the field of discourse

Examples Polar bears eat fish Participant: Actor Process: Material Goal Polar bears are good hunters Participant: Carrier Process: Attributive Attribute

The Mountain Long ago, a great mountain began to rumble and shake. People came from far and near to see what would happen. “A great river will be born,” said one. “A mighty dragon will come out,” said another. “A god himself will spring from these rocks,” said a third. Finally, a small crack appeared in the mountainside. And out popped a mouse.

Interpersonal meanings Express a speaker’s attitudes and judgements For acting upon and with others Realised in wordings through MOOD and modality. Most centrally influenced by tenor of discourse

Examples (Gerot and Wignell 1995:13) Declarative: We inspect the growing plants every week Imperative: Brock, get those plants inspected right now! Consider the interpersonal relations between speakers.

examples Brock, do you really expect me to believe this crap? Mr. Brock, I find your position unatenable Consider the degree of informality or formality

Examples Mr. Brock is a fine, upstanding employee. Brock is a lazy, incompetent fool. Consider the attitudinal lexis which express affect, the degree of like and dislike

Examples: Modality Unfortunately, Brock is an inspector. Consider the Mood Adjunct which reveal attitude or judgment. The crop might be inspected. The crop should be inspected The crop must be inspected Consider modal operators revealing the speaker’ certainty.

The Prayer I pray you'll be our eyes And watch us where we go And help us to be wise In times when we don't know Let this be our prayer As we go our way Lead us to a place Guide us with your Grace To a place where we'll be safe

Love Changes Everything Love will turn your world around And that world would last forever Yes, love, love changes everything Brings you glory, brings you shame Nothing in the world will ever be the same Love, into the world we go Planning future, shaping years Love does its acts suddenly All our wisdom disappears Love makes moves on everyone All the rules we make are broken Live or perish in its name Love will never, never let you be the same Love, love changes everything Hands and faces, birds and sky How you live and how you die Love can make the summer fly Or a night seem like a lifetime Yes, love, love changes everything Now I tremble at your name Nothing in the world will ever be the same Days are longer, words mean more Pain is deeper than before

Textual Meanings Express the relation of language to its environment (including what has been spoken or written before). Realised through patterns of Theme and cohesion. Most centrally influenced by mode of discourse

The linguistic differences between the following spoken and written texts below relate primarily to differences in thematic choices and patterns of cohesion. This is yer phone bill and you hafta go to the Post Office to pay it – uh, by next Monday – that’s what this box tells ya – or they’ll cut yer phone off! All phone bills must be paid by the date shown or service will be discontinued.

The relationship between context, meanings and wordings Context Text Semantics Lexicogrammar (meanings) (wordings) Field Ideational Transitivity (what is going on) (Processes, Participants, Circumstances Tenor Interpersonal Mood and Modality (Social relations) (Speech roles, attitudes) Mode Textual Theme, Cohesion (Contextual coherence)