RESEARCH DESIGNS M. Tsvere

RESEARCH PARADIGMS Refers to the broad classification of research A worldview/perception/theory/philosophy with respect to truth. Quantitative paradigm =empirical/rationalist/objective/ normative/ scientific/analytic/ hypothetico-deductive/hard 2. Qualitative paradigm =Subjective/ symbolic/holistic/ ethnographic/ responsive/ soft

Quantitative paradigm Mainly concerned with collecting data from a given sample in order to generalize the results Relies mainly on numbers, graphs to quantify data It gathers quantitative data and concludes from that data Is unambiguous i. e. you conclude from findings in most cases without doubt It acknowledges variables; motivation, age, and is thus tentative in its findings. It thus equates social phenomena to natural sciences Fails to verify feelings, attitudes, morals and opinions of individuals Uses structured instruments; closed questionnaires to collect data

Qualitative paradigm Asserts that there are no general rules about human behaviour. Assumes that behaviour is only understood in the context in which it occurs e.g. if you give teachers less money they won’t teach. IS THIS ALWAYS TRUE? Emphasises key concepts of subjectivity, motive, feelings, opinions, attitudes, reason, obligation or individual differences. Uses social/cultural science to interpret human behaviour. Is associated with participant observation (informers). Uses open-ended questions, interviews, observations, document analysis to collect data. UNSTRUCTURED

Quantitative vs Qualitative Knowledge is an objective phenomenon which can be measured Problem is structured and variables clearly defined Study is focused by research hypothesis Research is result oriented Extensive use of numbers to test and verify findings Knowledge is subjective synthesis of different perceptions of the variable Problem is unstructured Study is focused by research questions Research is process oriented Extensive use of words, pictures to describe situations

Quantitative vs Qualitative (continued) Applies probability sampling methods (S S S C) Researcher is detached from participants Researcher’s experiences and knowledge of participants is considered bias Report is in the third person ‘the researcher” to emphasize objectivity Use of non-probability sampling methods (purposive) sampling Researcher is immersed by participation Researcher’s experiences and knowledge are part of the interpretive data Report includes “I and We” to emphasize researcher involvement

TRIANGULATION However each paradigm boasts of yielding dependable data Triangulation is combining the 2 paradigms To crosscheck the validity of results yielded by one paradigm with those yielded by another Any research should have both the quantitative and qualitative research aspects The two paradigms are complementary and never antagonistic

RESEARCH DESIGNS 1. Research a systematic and investigative inquiry into a problem which leads one to create new knowledge. It is all about solving problems bedeviling society 2. Design To create a plan/to craft something/to scheme/a forward plan to be followed; a guide; a master plan; a blueprint

Meaning of Research Design The master plan specifying the methods and procedures for data collection. Stands for advance planning of methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data keeping in view the technique to be used in their analysis. The conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. Includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.

Meaning (continued) Research Design is the plan and structure of investigation, conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions. This plan is the overall scheme or program of the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do, from writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of data.

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS There are several research designs and the researcher must decide in advance of collection and analysis of data as to which design would prove to be more appropriate for his research project. Historical Experimental Surveys

HISTORICAL RESEARCH History is “ … the meaningful record of human achievement in the past” (Best and Kahn, 1999:101). Characteristics Depends on secondary data collected by documentary analysis and interviews Enables researcher to learn from the past, explain the present and predict the future Suffers from extensive infiltration of bias

Historical Research Process Identify an open ended topic requiring knowledge of the past Search for relevant sources (diaries, official documents, artifacts remains, constitutions, newspapers, pictures, informants) Validate sources for Genuineness in terms of time, detail in report, jargon Place of authorship

Historical research process (continued) Conditions of the author Purpose of authoring Publisher and place of publishing Intended audience Internal statement I, We, and They Variant information and sources 4. Synthesize facts into a chronological report

Limitations In Historical Research Unavailability of sources Excessive use of secondary data Inadequate validation of sources Bias in the selection and interpretation of sources Inability to synchronize events and situations The static nature of history limits creativity

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS Also called inferential study Used to establish cause and effect relationships by isolating other variables Assumes variable distributions to be normal It is quantitative making use of hypothesis and test statistics Requires manipulation of variables

Methods of Experimental Designs Identify a problem requiring cause and effect Formulate a statistical hypothesis Identify measurable variable indicators Isolate factor or variable under investigation by manipulating conditions Form two identical sample groups (experiment and control) by randomisation Measure level of variable in each group by a pre-test

Experimental design: Methods (continued) 7. Administer the intervention or treatment to the experimental group 8. Measure the level of variable in the two groups

DESCRIPTIVE SURVEYS Aim to identify variable and its distribution Purpose is to describe, explain and predict Make use of different methods of data collection Collects large volumes of data within a short time using instruments

Descriptive Surveys:- Process Select a topic requiring data from people’s minds by answering questions Formulate research questions and / or hypothesis Design the instrument(s) Carry out a pilot test to improve instrument reliability Seek permission from organization Administer the instrument to collect data Analyze data and answer research questions