EMPLOYEE REPRESENTATION: Chapter 7 EMPLOYEE REPRESENTATION: TRADE UNIONS In this session we will be examining trade unions. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Learning objectives Distinguish the different forms of employee representation. Identify what unions ‘do’ both in the workplace and beyond the workplace. Identify the different ‘shapes’ assumed by unions. Describe the typical governance structure of Australian unions. Trace the historical development of Australian unions. Analyse the various reasons why employees join unions. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Learning objectives Understand trends over time in union membership in Australia, including the marked decline in union membership since the 1970s. Understand the ways in which recent changes in industrial relations regulation have affected unions in Australia. Understand the contribution of women to unions as well as their treatment by unions in Australia. Discuss the strategic responses of Australian unions to their declining power. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Overview Different forms of employee representation What unions do in the workplace and beyond Different union shapes Governance structure of unions Historical development of Australian unions Why employees join unions Explaining declining union density Recent changes in industrial relations Impact of female representation in unions Strategic responses to declining power In doing so, the following areas will be touched upon: role and influence of unions shape of unions structure and governance of unions origins and development of Australian unions reasons why employees join unions declining union density strategies for union renewal female representation in unions Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Different forms of employee representation Voluntary Non-union: management-initiated consultation (e.g. company unions, consultative committees). Union: informal collective bargaining with no compulsion for employers to recognise or bargain with unions. State-sanctioned Statute-sponsored employee participation, e.g. works councils, OH&S committees. Statute-sponsored collective bargaining, conciliation and arbitration. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

What do unions do? Definition of a trade union a continuous association of wage earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment (Webb and Webb 1894, p. 1) Here is a definition of ‘trade union’. Note that it must be a continuous association of wage earners. Also note that the primary responsibility of unions is to maintain and enhance the working conditions of members. This includes pay and conditions. The role of unions is to represent their members. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper 6

What do unions do? Role and influence: Collective voice of employees at the workplace and other levels Political/Social lobbyist Revolutionary role Criticised as being anti-market In representing the interests of members, unions have the following roles and influence: Collective voice at the workplace level and other levels—the basic role of unions is to represent the interests of members whenever required. Political/Social lobbying—this means that unions pressure law-makers to introduce or change laws to favour the interests of members. Revolutionary role—here it is thought that unions seek to overthrow capitalism and replace it with a social and political system more favourable to ‘working class’ people; however, most unions in Australia are more than happy to work within the existing ‘capitalist’ system. Unions have been criticised for being ‘anti-market’. Some commentators (from the ‘right’ side of politics) regard the entire concept of unionism to be contrary to the ‘free’-market, where wages and conditions of employment are determined by supply and demand. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Different shapes assumed by unions There are three main aspects of union structure: The shape of individual unions. 2. Internal governance structures within these individual unions. 3. The external affiliations and alliances that individual unions enter on a geographic or industry basis. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

The shape of unions The most common categorisation of unions is according to their membership base: Craft/Occupational unions workers in the same craft or occupation but in different industries first type to emerge Industry unions workers in the same industry but doing different crafts/work public sector There are four main types of unions: Craft/Occupational unions these are characterised by members who work in the same occupation, rather than members who work in the same company or industry, e.g. boilermakers, electricians, doctors working in the public-hospital system, teachers or barristers Industry unions these are characterised by members who work in the same industry, such as public-sector workers (CPSU), or people working in transportation (TWU) Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

The shape of unions The most common categorisation of unions is according to their membership base: (cont.) 3. Company/Enterprise unions restrict membership to employees of one company rare in English-speaking countries common in Asia, especially Japan 4. General/Conglomerate unions allow anyone to join, regardless of job or industry AWU Company or enterprise unions characterised by members who work in the same company, regardless of the work that is performed General or conglomerate unions this type of union recruits any employee, regardless of the craft performed or the industry worked in Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Internal governance structures Concerned with the processes by which decisions about policy and actions are made within unions: usually formal mechanisms by which members participate in union affairs Two common features of union structure: usually four levels in the decision-making structure of a union distinction between ‘rank and file’ members and full-time officials Union’s workplace tasks are often undertaken by committees usually in multi-union worksites The internal governance structures of unions are concerned with the processes by which decisions on policy and action are made within unions. In Australia there are at least two common features of unions. There are usually at least four levels in the decision-making structure of a union: workplace regional state national There is a distinction between ‘rank and file’ members and full-time officials. ‘Rank and file’ members can be elected by other union members onto decision-making committees, but these roles are not paid by the union. Full-time union officials are often elected by union members (depending on the union) but they are paid by the union. While the way in which full-time officials are appointed (whether selected on merit or elected from the membership) varies between unions, and the authority given to these officials also varies between unions; the fact that much of the work is performed by the committees seems to be a commonality across unions. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Internal governance structures Unions usually affiliate with larger bodies: labour councils ACTU AMA/other Unions are usually affiliated with larger bodies. At the lowest level, unions sometimes join other unions at the enterprise level to form shop committees. Unions with members in the same industry often join together to form industry groups or industry federations. This makes campaigning easier. A third type of inter-union cooperation comes in the form of regional union bodies. Individual unions affiliate with these bodies in order to pursue common interests (e.g. political lobbying). The most important of these bodies are those in state capitals, such as the Labour Council in New South Wales or the United Trades and Labour Council in South Australia. These are branches of the ACTU. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Historical development of Australian unions Long history—unions in Australia for more than 150 years. 1800s–1890 First mutual benefit societies formed by skilled artisans ‘Unions’ emerged from those societies Permanency achieved in 1850s Key unions formed mining maritime pastoral Trade unions have existed in Australia for more than 150 years. They began in the early decades of the 1800s as a small collection of occupationally-based mutual-benefit societies that grew into craft unions. Unions of less-skilled workers, still occupationally based, began to emerge in the 1870s. By the 1880s unions had attained considerable membership and power. The strongest unions were in the mining, maritime and pastoral areas. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Historical development of Australian unions 1890–1900 Unions were in a strong position by the end of the 1880s. Depression and strikes between 1890 and 1894 destroyed trade unions. Australian Labor Party (ALP) was formed in the early 1890s. By the late 1880s unions were in a very strong position. However, they were badly defeated in the Great Strikes of the 1890s. These strikes were bitter and strongly contested by employers. At the same time as these ongoing strikes were under way, the framers of the future Australian Constitution were at work. They saw the bitterness caused by this industrial disputation and decided to insert a section into the constitution to deal with industrial relations matters. This was Section 51 (xxxv). The defeat of the unions brought home the need to form a political body to cater for the needs of unions and to legislate on behalf of unions. The first parliamentary representatives of the Australian Labor Party were elected in 1891, when 35 Labor members were elected in the 120-member New South Wales legislative assembly. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Historical development of Australian unions 1900–1989 Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1904 Unions prospered ‘right not might’ concept cemented in law grew rapidly in number and membership Emergence of Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) and state branches Unions were interested in compulsory arbitration and pushed for the establishment of tribunals with the authority to make legally binding decisions that would resolve industrial disputes. While conciliation and arbitration tribunals (or wages boards) were established in all states during the early 1890s and 1900s, the insertion of Section 51(xxxv) into the Australian constitution allowed laws to be made that established these tribunals federally. The Arbitration Court was formed in 1904, following the establishment of the Conciliation and Arbitration Act of 1904. Unions prospered under the Act. By 1921 the number of trade unions was at 382. From 1901 to 1921 the proportion of the Australian workforce covered by Australian unions grew from 6% to 52%. From then until the late 1980s, union density (that is, the proportion of all employees who are union members) fluctuated around the 50% level. In 1927, the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) was formed. It brought together a range of divergent interest groups with different industrial and political objectives. It also succeeded in welding the various constituents of the labour movement together—partly because it offered something to the socialist left and the mainstream. The role and status of the ACTU have changed over time: 1950s—quite small in stature and somewhat factionalised 1980s—became a major force in Australian politics and wielded great authority over its affiliated members as it negotiated the Accord with the Labor Government Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Historical development of Australian unions 1990s–2000s Changing conditions: socially economically politically In the second half of the 1980s the Australian union movement still appeared strong. Just under half the workforce belonged to a union, and the unions had power because of their affiliation with the Accord and the Hawke Labor Government, and a lot of industrial strength. However, during the 1990s membership declined rapidly. It has been estimated that union density fell by almost 2% a year between 1992 and 1999. By 2002 only 23% of all employees were union members (almost half the 1988 figure). The political power of unions also declined. The Keating Government was not as close to the unions as the Hawke Government. The Keating Government moved increasingly towards neo-liberal policies. The unions were persuaded to support enterprise bargaining. The introduction of the Industrial Relations Reform Act 1993 by the Keating Government also introduced non-union bargaining (Enterprise Flexibility Agreements [EFAs]). This anti-union stance was extended when the Coalition won government in 1996 and introduced the Workplace Relations Act 1996. This was deeply anti-union in its intent. The industrial strength of unions decreased significantly. Declining membership and the increasingly hostile legal environment were part of the problem. Employers were also adopting a more antagonistic approach. Previously moderate employer associations were joining more radical counterparts. Big employers were more and more inclined to confront unions on industrial issues. In order to understand these patterns, especially the declining union-density rates, it is important first to examine why people join unions and what benefits they might expect to derive from union membership. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Australian union membership patterns In the second half of the 1980s the Australian union movement still appeared strong. Just under half the workforce belonged to a union, and the unions had power because of their affiliation with the Accord and the Hawke Labor Government, and they had a lot of industrial strength. However, during the 1990s membership declined rapidly. It has been estimated that union density fell by almost 2% a year between 1992 and 1999. By 2002 only 23% of all employees were union members (almost half the 1988 figure). The political power of unions also declined. The Keating Government was not as close to the unions as the Hawke Government. The Keating Government moved increasingly towards neo-liberal policies. The unions were persuaded to support enterprise bargaining. The introduction of the Industrial Relations Reform Act 1993 by the Keating Government also introduced non-union bargaining (Enterprise Flexibility Agreements [EFAs]). This anti-union stance was extended when the Coalition won government in 1996 and introduced the Workplace Relations Act 1996. This was deeply anti-union in its intent. The industrial strength of unions dropped significantly. Declining membership and the increasingly hostile legal environment were part of the problem. Employers were also adopting a more antagonistic approach. Previously moderate employer associations were joining more radical counterparts. Big employers were more and more inclined to confront unions on industrial issues. In order to understand these patterns, especially the declining union-density rates, it is important first to examine why people join unions and what benefits they might expect to derive from union membership. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Australian union membership patterns In the second half of the 1980s the Australian union movement still appeared strong. Just under half the workforce belonged to a union, and the unions had power because of their affiliation with the Accord and the Hawke Labor Government, and they had a lot of industrial strength. However, during the 1990s membership declined rapidly. It has been estimated that union density fell by almost 2% a year between 1992 and 1999. By 2002 only 23% of all employees were union members (almost half the 1988 figure). The political power of unions also declined. The Keating Government was not as close to the unions as the Hawke Government. The Keating Government moved increasingly towards neo-liberal policies. The unions were persuaded to support enterprise bargaining. The introduction of the Industrial Relations Reform Act 1993 by the Keating Government also introduced non-union bargaining (Enterprise Flexibility Agreements [EFAs]). This anti-union stance was extended when the Coalition won government in 1996 and introduced the Workplace Relations Act 1996. This was deeply anti-union in its intent. The industrial strength of unions dropped significantly. Declining membership and the increasingly hostile legal environment were part of the problem. Employers were also adopting a more antagonistic approach. Previously moderate employer associations were joining more radical counterparts. Big employers were more and more inclined to confront unions on industrial issues. In order to understand these patterns, especially the declining union-density rates, it is important first to examine why people join unions and what benefits they might expect to derive from union membership. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Why employees join unions Crouch 1982 Dissatisfaction with economic aspects of the job. A desire to influence aspects of the work environment through a union. Benefits of unionism outweigh costs. Crouch (1982) believed that people make an active decision as to whether or not they should join a union. This decision is affected by at least three sets of factors: dissatisfaction with economic aspects of the job, such as pay, conditions, supervisory relationship, job content and involvement in decision-making desire to influence these aspects of the work environment through union-oriented means a belief that the benefits of unionism outweigh the costs; the benefits include: the value of other services provided by the union (insurance, legal advice and discount purchasing) the expected value of personal representation (on grounds of age, ethnicity, etc.). Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Why employees join unions Various reasons for union membership: ‘instrumental’ considerations ‘ideological’ beliefs ‘normative’ pressures Most Australians join because of instrumental considerations. The reasons for employees joining unions can be put into three categories: instrumental reasons: unionism is seen as a tool for achieving some purpose, e.g. to provide employment insurance, to attain wage increases ideological reasons: people unionise because of a political perspective on the nature of work normative pressures: people unionise because they believe it is a good thing to do (e.g. ‘I think people should be union members’ or because people in the workplace expect them to, or because their parents are/were members). The research in Australia suggests that employees usually join unions for instrumental rather than ideological reasons. However, other research suggests that an individual’s ideological orientation is a significant factor affecting union membership. Certain political and social values are related to higher levels of unionisation. The likelihood of union membership is enhanced where individuals hold a political ideology and believe in greater equality in the distribution of wealth in society. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Why is union density declining? Changing composition of employment Economic factors Changing popularity of unions Role of management Government policies Union policies and structures As stated earlier, union membership in Australia has fallen significantly in recent years. A large body of research has sought to identify the causes of this decline. The research can be classified in six main themes: changes in the structure of employment, with the decline of large-scale manufacturing and the rise in the services sector as an employer effects of economic factors—the onset of economic competition and the removal of tariff protection has led to increased product-market competition and finance-sector scrutiny of organisational management social attitudes towards unions—less interest in collectivist solutions to workplace issues management practices—more determined and strategic behaviour in response to economic changes government policies—decline of industry protection and the adoption of union-unfriendly legislation union policies and structures—amalgamations are considered to have weakened union performance in some industries Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Why is union density declining? Changing composition of employment Growth in services sector Part-time, casual workers Self-employment Public-/Private-sector shifts Size of the workplace Young workers There has been a change in the occupational and industrial structure of the Australian workforce. The non-manual services sector has grown, and part-time work and self-employment have increased. Employment has also expanded in those industries and jobs where the propensity to unionise is lower. At the same time, employment has contracted in those sectors where unionisation rates are highest. In addition, most of the employment growth that occurred in the Australian economy in the 1980s and 1990s was confined to the private sector, which has a far lower union-density rate. Union membership is also lower, as a proportion of all employees, in smaller organisations than in bigger organisations. Younger workers are less likely to be union members. It has been suggested that the lower rates of unionisation among younger workers has come about for two reasons: young workers are more likely to occupy non-union jobs—the use of contract, temporary and part-time workers has the effect of excluding new recruits from union membership higher levels of education make younger people more critical of poor working conditions and rewards; this means they are more likely to leave their jobs rather than try to change them from within Higher levels of education have also contributed to rising occupational aspirations and a more individualistic orientation to the employment relationship. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Why is union density declining? Economic factors Unemployment ACTU/ALP Accord reduced the influence of individual unions and their members All workers received the same benefits whether or not they were union members tax reductions guaranteed wage increases superannuation Another possible factor affecting union-membership levels is the rate of unemployment. In Australia, there were significant rises in unemployment in the late 1980s and early 1990s. However, the links between unemployment rates and union membership are unclear. It has also been said that the substantial decline in ‘real pay’ under the Accord may have reduced the popularity of unions. As wages and conditions of employment were largely fixed, it has been suggested that the Accord enabled people to get a ‘free ride’. The determinations of the Accord were not just applicable to union members, but rather to everyone. There was little reason, therefore, to join a union. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Why is union density declining? Changing popularity of unions Unions seen as being too powerful by some. Poor public image. Image of unions among members more important than among community members. In Australia, public opinion polls have shown that unions are seen as being too powerful. Where such beliefs exist, individuals may be less inclined to become members. The ACTU has shown ongoing concern about the poor public image of trade unions and spoken about the need to market the union movement more effectively, making it more attractive to members and prospective members. The ACTU Congress of 2000 endorsed the development of an integrated media strategy ‘designed to enhance public awareness of the benefits of union membership’. Some unions have tended to regard the issue of the public’s perception of union power as largely irrelevant to union membership. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Why is union density declining? Role of management Polices aimed at replacing union role in the workplace enhanced communications involvement in decision-making employee shareholding schemes Strategies aimed at isolating unions restricting access to employees denying unions a role in setting wages and conditions Organisations can institute policies that seek to substitute or suppress unions. Substitution policies, which aim to reduce or remove the demand for union services, can take the form of initiatives such as: enhanced communication processes decentralised decision-making employee shareholding schemes Management may also raise the barriers to unionisation by restricting the access of union officials to worksites or by denying unions a collective role in determining wages and working conditions. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Why is union density declining? Role of management 3. Management tactics aimed at reducing union membership additional incentives to employees greater level of formal internal communication channels job satisfaction individual contracts Management may also try to reduce/inhibit union membership by: offering new financial incentives, such as shares, tied to the performance of the organisation offering staff more say in the governance of the organisation and, therefore, recapturing employees improving job satisfaction—individuals who are satisfied with their jobs are significantly less likely to join a union introducing, or trying to introduce, individual contracts, therefore de-unionising the workforce Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Why is union density declining? Government policies Introduction of individual contracts. Prohibition of compulsory unionism and preference to unionists. Reduced authority of arbitration tribunals. More difficult procedures for union rights of entry. New and increased penalties for industrial action. There is considerable evidence that conservative state and federal government policies since the early 1990s have contributed to a more hostile operating environment for most trade unions in Australia. They have done this by: introducing individual contracts prohibiting compulsory unionism and preference to unionists reducing the authority of arbitration tribunals making procedures for union rights of entry more difficult implementing new and increased penalties for industrial action Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Why is union density declining? Union policies and structures Union structures and policies may have contributed to membership decline. Amalgamation exercise unions grew too big and became less democratic Accord may have alienated union members unions became mechanisms of government and allied to employers showed up flaws in union structure Union structures and policies may have contributed to the decline in union membership; they have certainly failed to prevent it. The enthusiastic participation of the ACTU and individual unions in the Accord during the 1980s and 1990s may have alienated many union members or potential union members. Why? The unions became too close to governments and employers, and failed to advocate and advance the interests of union members. Some commentators believe that union structures became less democratic and responsive as a result of the union amalgamation process. The Accord may have accentuated a long-term structural weakness of Australian unions—namely, their poor organisation at a workplace level. The Accord meant that union policy-making and policy implementation were highly centralised. This left little opportunity for ‘rank and file’ union members and local union officials to participate. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Strategies for union renewal Amalgamation and rationalisation History of amalgamation 300 unions merged into 17 broad industry groupings greater utilisation of resources 50 unions affiliated with ACTU in 2000 Amalgamation strategy’s limited success has reduced number of unions and increased efficiencies may have reduced union membership Amalgamation and rationalisation Historically, Australia has possessed a large number of unions. Over 300 separate unions operated in the 1980s. Size was irrelevant to union survival under the compulsory arbitration system. However, by the late 1980s the ACTU was concerned about the ability of many of its smaller constituents to recruit members and provide the level of service necessary to keep them. As a consequence, in 1987 the ACTU devised a radical program (outlined in 1987’s Australia Reconstructed) that proposed union amalgamations and a strategy for reconstructing the labour movement into 17 broad industry groupings, to create efficiencies of scale. The pressure to amalgamate intensified in the 1990s, with continuing membership losses and the concern that unions were too narrow in their occupational focus. From 1990 to 1996 the number of federally registered unions went from 295 to 132. As at July 2000 there were 50 unions affiliated with the ACTU. Limited success Was the amalgamation strategy successful? On the one hand, it resulted in a dramatic reduction in the number of unions in Australia. It has been contended that this has led to cost savings in delivering benefits to members. On the other hand, however, it has been contended that union amalgamations have had a highly significant, negative effect on union membership. It has been said that larger unions (comprising as they now do a wide variety of different occupations and industry sectors) are less responsive to their members. It has also been said that amalgamations have left many employees with no choice which union to join, so they exercise their right not to join. It is still too early to draw any final conclusions about the effects of the amalgamation strategy. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Strategies for union renewal Recruitment of members Lack of a ‘recruitment culture’ Emphasis on day-to-day matters rather than planning. Strategies for union renewal Organising Works program (1995) Unions@Work Future strategies: Unions for a fairer society Australian unions have been criticised for failing to develop a ‘recruitment culture’. It has been claimed that union organisers have almost totally neglected their recruitment role because they are preoccupied with the day-to-day servicing of members. Survey results in 1995 found that in only 3% of workplaces, the recruitment or collection of union dues was the purpose of a union official’s most recent visit to the workplace. The Organising Works program was a significant initiative. Its purpose was to recruit, train and support young union organisers. The ACTU met the administration, training and supervision costs of the program, while the affiliated union to which the trainee was attached covered their wages. It was expected that these trainee organisers would generate more income in membership dues than the costs associated with their employment. This appeared to work. The program generated over $2.7 million per annum, which was more than the funds allocated to the program—making it financially attractive to participating unions. A second and related ACTU initiative, revealed in a report known as Unions@Work, was launched in late 1999. This program had four main planks: strengthening delegate and membership activism in the workplace—unions were encouraged to devote additional sources to educating delegates in recruitment, bargaining and grievance handling devoting resources to organising in ‘new’ workplaces and growth industries—unions were encouraged to develop ‘new’ and meticulously planned organising methods greater use of technology—unions were encouraged to ensure all their members were online, made greater use of the Internet and email technologies, and investigated the use of call centres as a way to deal with member enquiries campaign strategies—affiliated unions were encouraged to develop new campaign tactics that focused on issues of contemporary importance to workers and to form alliances with other community groups In 2003, the ACTU launched a follow-up report to Unions@Work, entitled Future Strategies: Unions for a Fairer Society. Here again the focus is on union recruitment efforts. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Union models Research indicates that there has been only limited success in re-orienting unions to the ‘organising model’. Few resources are directed to membership growth in non-union sectors and organisers still tend to concentrate on grievance solution procedures for members, rather than recruitment. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Strategies for union renewal Recruitment of members Mixed results: failed to reverse the decline in union membership improved financial revenue for unions improved many unions that have an organising culture (but not all) increased range of services offered by unions Most unions still concentrate their efforts on grievance resolution (reactive) rather than recruitment (pro-active). Research indicates that there has been only limited success in re-orienting unions to the ‘organising model’. Few resources are directed to membership growth in non-union sectors and organisers still tend to concentrate on grievance solution procedures for members, rather than on recruitment. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Strategies for union renewal Peetz and Pocock (2009) suggest that, in some sectors at least, we may be witnessing a ‘sea change’ in the role of the union delegate in the unionised workplace. They argue that: our analysis of delegates in eight Australian unions suggests that the role of delegates, at least in their perception, is changing in many places, and that the orientation is to more workplace activism (p. 647). For those unions that have adopted a strategy that involves the empowerment of union delegates, there has, according to Peetz and Pocock (2009), been associated growth in union power. Research indicates that there has been only limited success in re-orienting unions to the ‘organising model’. Few resources are directed to membership growth in non-union sectors and organisers still tend to concentrate on grievance solution procedures for members, rather than recruitment. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Female representation in unions Why is the typical female employee less likely to be unionised than the typical male employee? unions slow to recognise concerns of women women tend to be employed in workplaces that are difficult to organise labour-market issues (concentrated in unskilled work) part-time/casual nature of work held by women under-represented in ACTU and in senior union roles child bearing and rearing duties perception of unions as not encouraging female participation Until the mid-1990s Australian unions were generally far more successful in attracting male workers than female workers. Why? (Discuss the summary on the slide). Women also have different priorities from male union members. In surveys, women ranked the following issues in priority: health and safety job security childcare sexual harassment equal opportunity part-time work working conditions social issues ranked much higher than for males. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Female representation in unions Possible remedies to improve female representation in unions Encourage more women to become officials by: changing selection criteria to reflect reality changing meeting times introducing quotas for women Possible remedies Women need encouragement to become full-time officials. This could be achieved by relaxing the traditional criteria used for recruiting full-time staff (which, traditionally, has placed a great deal of emphasis on extensive experience in the union movement). It has also been suggested that holding meetings in work time could greatly encourage participation in union activities. Evening meetings clash with expectations that women will carry out their household duties. Locating meetings near or at the worksite is also relevant. It has also been said that making structural changes could encourage more female participation. Seats could be reserved for women on unions’ executive and legislative bodies. Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Final observations Unions are important mechanisms for the articulation and representation of employee interests structures and behaviours vary widely Australian trade unions were major beneficiaries of the conciliation and arbitration system but limited workplace organisation Decline in union membership from 1980s onwards adoption of new strategies for recruitment and organisation from 1990s unclear yet as to whether these strategies are working Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper

Summary Primary purpose of unions is to protect and improve the wellbeing of members critics see unionism as unfair monopolies, preventing the operation of the labour market supporters see unions as a corrective to power of employers Majority of union members used to be older males, but females are now nearly equally represented Marked decline in union membership over recent years owing to a number of factors. This is being addressed by: union amalgamations providing existing members with better services greater emphasis on recruitment Copyright © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPT slides to accompany Employment Relations: Theory and Practice 2e by Bray, Waring & Cooper