A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development 6e Chapter Eleven: The Self, Identity, and Personality John W. Santrock

The Self Self-understanding Self: All characteristics of a person Self-understanding, self-esteem, self-concept Identity: Who a person is, representing a synthesis of self-understanding Personality: Individuals’ enduring personal characteristics

The Self Self-understanding Infancy: Cognitive representation of the self, substance of self conceptions Infancy: Visual self-recognition tests infants Emerges gradually up to age 2; first in mirror By age 3: forms of self-awareness include "mine, me big, me do it"

Figure 11.1 - Self-Recognition in Infancy

The Self Self-understanding and early childhood More psychologically aware of self and others Self-recognition includes visual and verbal Five main characteristics of self-understanding Confusion of self, mind, and body Self described in size, shape, color, etc.

The Self Self-understanding in childhood Five main characteristics of self-understanding Concrete descriptions: “I live in a big house” Physical descriptions: “I’m not tall like her” Active descriptions: "I can play games” Unrealistic positive overestimations: “I know my ABCs” when s/he doesn’t know them Occurs in older children as social comparison

The Self Self-understanding Early childhood and understanding others By age 4: realize others make untrue statements to get something or avoid trouble Individual differences in social understanding; some linked to caregivers’ conversations More aware of others’ feelings, desires

The Self Self-understanding Middle and Late Childhood Increased awareness of social standing Self-understanding becomes more complex Understanding others Realize others have access to more information Assume others understand them, too.

The Self Self-understanding Perspective-taking: Ability to assume another’s perspective and understand his or her thoughts and feelings Important in children developing prosocial and antisocial attitudes and behaviors Affects peer status and quality of friendships

The Self Middle and Late Childhood Self-understanding: five key changes Internal characteristics emphasized More referencing in social descriptions More use of social comparisons Distinguish between real self and ideal self Realistic in self-evaluations

The Self Self-understanding in adolescence Abstract and idealistic Self-conscious; preoccupied with self Contradictions within the self: has multiple roles Fluctuating self over time and situations Real and ideal selves: constructed, compared Thoughts of “possible selves” Self-integration in sense of identity

The Self Self-understanding in adulthood Self-Awareness Awareness of strengths and weaknesses Possible Selves What one could or wanted to be, afraid to be Life Review Review, evaluate life’s successes and failures Can be intense, quiet; common in old age

The Self Self-esteem and self-concept Self-esteem: Self-worth, self-image Refers to global self-evaluation Self-concept: Domain-specific evaluations of self Distinct: not really interchangeable

The Self Issues in self-esteem Modest correlation with school performance Linked to job performance; correlations vary Related to perceived physical appearance across life-span Depression lowers high self-esteem Self-esteem in adolescence appears linked to adjustment and competencies in adulthood

The Self Issues in self-esteem Narcissism: Too much self-esteem Self-centered, self-concerned, conceited Lack of awareness linked to adjustment problems Happiness strongly linked to self-esteem

The Self Developmental changes in self-esteem Childhood and adolescence Self-evaluation accuracy increases across elementary school years; more realistic Majority of adolescents have positive self-image cross-culturally Girls: small decreases in self-esteem may be related to relationship authenticity

The Self Developmental changes in self-esteem Concern today: Unmerited praise as child linked to inflated self-esteem in college students; difficulty handling competition and criticism Adulthood Results vary on self-esteem decreasing Individual coping skills affects perceptions of changes, events; social context matters

Figure 11.3 - Self-Esteem Across the Lifespan

The Self Developmental changes in self-esteem Adulthood: Older adults Emotion-related goals increase Health evaluation based on peer comparisons May help maintain positive self-image Low self-esteem linked to being widowed or institutionalized; experiencing physical decline/impairment; low religious commitment

The Self Strategies for increasing self-esteem Identify causes of low self-esteem Provide/seek emotional support, social approval Develop self-confidence and initiative Achieve Develop coping skills

The Self Self-regulation Ability to control one’s behavior without having to rely on others for help Includes self-generation and cognitive monitoring of thoughts Self-regulation linked to higher achievement and satisfaction over the lifespan

The Self Self-regulation: Infancy and early childhood 12 to 18 mons.: Depend on caregivers for reminder signals about acceptable behaviors 2 to 3 yrs: Begin to comply with the caregiver’s expectations in the absence of monitoring Preschool: Learn to resist temptation and give themselves instructions that keep them focused

The Self Self-regulation: Middle/late childhood and adolescence Capacity for self-regulation increases Few studies done on adolescents Increased self-control, introspection, risk-taking More independence, advanced cognitive skills Better at delaying gratification More social comparison may increase risks

The Self Self-regulation: Adulthood Increase in self control in middle years Older adults have decline in perceived self-control Aware of age-related losses Decline of physical and cognitive skills may be buffered by flexible adaptation Selective optimization with compensation effective when pursuing successful outcomes

The Self Self-regulation Selective Optimization with Compensation Selection: Reduction in performance Optimization: Continue practice, use of technology Compensation: Concealment; offsetting or counterbalancing a deficiency

The Self Self-regulation: Personal control Primary control striving Try to change external world for needs and desires Attain personal goals, overcome obstacles Secondary control striving Targets one’s inner worlds: motivation, emotion, and mental representation

Figure 11.5 - Changes in Primary and Secondary Control Strategies Across the Life Span

Identity What is identity? A self-portrait composed of many pieces Vocational/career, political, religious Relationship, achievement/intellectual Cultural/ethnic, sexual, physical Personality and interests

Identity Erikson’s view Need to understand adolescent development Identity versus identity confusion Adolescents examine who they are, what they are about, and where they are going in life Psychosocial moratorium Gap between childhood security and adult autonomy, part of exploration for identity

Identity Contemporary thoughts on identity Lengthy process, gradual and not crisis Begins as attachment in infancy Involves commitment/purpose, making decisions Years of physical, cognitive, socioemotional development can be merged into one path Some emerge with multiple identities Concerns today: many not resolving identity

Identity Developmental changes Identity statuses by Marcia Crisis: Period for exploring alternative identities Commitment: Personal investment in identity Young adolescents primarily in statuses of diffusion, foreclosure, or moratorium

Figure 11.6 - Marcia’s Identity Statuses

Identity Developmental changes Early adolescence to adulthood Key changes occur in early adulthood Most dramatic change — vocational Increased complexity in reasoning, experiences Increased freedom has impact Higher education linked to positive outcomes Identity consolidation complete in middle age

Identity Family influences Individuality: Two dimensions Self-assertion: Ability to have, give opinions Separateness: Communicates individuality Connectedness: Two dimensions Mutuality: Respect, sensitivity to others’ views Permeability: Openness to others’ views

Identity Ethnic identity Ethnic minority groups struggle to blend into dominant culture and keep cultural identities Enduring aspect of self with sense of membership in ethnic group; related attitudes and feelings Affected by sociocultural contexts Positive ethnic identity linked to: HS achievement, low aggression, good coping Affected by higher education

Personality Definition: Enduring personal characteristics Trait theories Traits: Ways to describe a person by behaviors Basic units/building blocks of personality Five big factors: OCEAN Led to advancements in assessing personality Most believe personality is result of trait-situation interaction

Figure 11.7 - Big Five Factors of Personality

Personality Views on adult personality development Stage crisis view: Erikson, Levinson Levinson’s seasons of a man’s life Stage and transitions occur in life span Tasks/crisis in each stage shape personality Levinson’s midlife crisis in 40s: try to cope with gap between past and future Vaillant’s Grant Study

Levinson’s Seasons of Life Early Adult Transition: 17 to 22 Entry life structure for early adulthood: 22 to 28 Age 30 transition: 28 to 33 Culminating life structure for early adulthood: 33 to 40 Middle Adult Transition: ages 40 to 45 Entry life structure for middle adulthood: 45 to 50 Age 50 transition: 50 to 55 Culminating life structure for middle adulthood: 55 to 60 Era of late adulthood: 60 to ? Late Adult Transition: 60 to 65

Personality Individual variations Individuals have different experiences, ways of adapting, expectations, perceptions of needs, and giving meaning to one’s life Stage theories stress stage crises too much Too much emphasis on midlife crisis Great variation in how individuals experience stages (coping abilities, emotions)

Figure 11.9 - Emotional Instability and Age

Personality Life events approach Alternative to stage approach Contemporary life-events approach How a life event influences individual’s development depends on The life event Individual’s adaptation to the life event Life-stage context Sociohistorical context

Figure 11.14 - Life Events Framework

Personality Generativity Erikson’s generativity versus stagnation Seventh stage; important dimension in middle age Generativity: Taking care of next generation Middle-aged adults develop in many ways Stagnation Self-absorption, develops when one senses s/he has done nothing for next generation

Figure 11.12 - Changes in Generativity from the Thirties to the Fifties

Personality Stability and change Many longitudinal studies have found evidence for both change and stability in personality in adulthood Costa and McCrae’s Baltimore Study Stability of big five factors in college educated Berkley Longitudinal Studies Helson’s Mills College Study Vaillant’s studies

Personality Cumulative Personality Model With time and age, people become more adept at interacting with environment in ways that promote stability Overall, personality is affected by Social contexts New experiences Sociohistorical changes

Figure 11.13 - Links Between Characteristics at Age 50 and Health and Happiness at Ages 75-80

The End