OECD vs the Netherlands Early tracking – or: are we flexible enough?

A stratified education system students are subject to institutionalised differentiation from age 12 OECD 2007: differentiation diminishes opportunities for disadvantaged and non-Western migrant pupils to enter Tertiary Education Tension: stratified system is efficient, but what about equal opportunities for all?

What about equal opportunities? Most research results suggest that early tracking reinforces inequality through: * strengthening socio-economic deficit * more inequality in learning outcomes However: causal relationship between systemic characteristics and (un)equal opportunities appears problematic

Systemic characteristics do not explain everything School careers: social, cultural and organisational characteristics are more important than systemic features “Education cannot compensate for society” Paradox in the Netherlands? Despite inequality in learning outcomes, their differentiation is relatively limited

Learning outcomes and non-Western migrant pupils in the Netherlands Lower learning outcomes follow from lower socio-economic status However: in Primary Education migrant pupils catch up a lot (not all) and this continues in Secondary Education Participation of non-Western migrant students in Tertiary Education has strongly increased Yet migrant school careers retain peculiar characteristics

School career characteristics of non-Western migrants In general achievement is lower Within the group there are major differences (some without qualification, others in Tertiary Education) Succesful migrant students achieve better than native students (after correction for socio-economic deficit) They are highly motivated They make extensive use of roundabout routes through the system (flexibility)

Careers of HBO-starters in 2007 Native Dutch Non-Western Vmbo-mbo-hbo 33 % 46 % Havo-mbo-hbo 1 % Vmbo-havo-hbo 7 % 8 % Havo-hbo** 47 % 36 % Vwo-hbo 2 % other 3 %

Careers of University (WO)-starters native Dutch Non-Western Vmbo-mbo-hbo-wo 2 % 6% Havo-vwo-wo 4 % 5 % Vwo-wo** 78 % 65 % Vwo-hbo-wo 3 % 0 % Other/unknown-hbo-wo 13 % 24 %

Flexibility goes even further In the 3d year of Secondary Education, 24 % of pupils is no longer in the school-type where he/she started (13 % upward, 11 % downward) Mobility within vmbo and with havo/vwo is substantial during the first years (upward from vmbo to havo 6 – 7 %) There are no impermeable walls between the school-types

Early tracking and flexibility A substantial flexibility exists – but is it enough? A mix of approaches is advisable * post-selection mobility (as shown above) * timely compensation for disadvantages * investing in education time (ECEC)

The verdict is ambiguous (?) Non-Western migrant students need the roundabout routes to gather social capital Non-Western migrant students are duped because they are structurally “under-advised” and thus are selected on perseverance instead of talent and capacity