Final Exam Review, Pt. 2 Chapters 3-4

Chapter Three Brains, Body, & Behavior

Neurons (nerve cells) – transmit & receive neural impulses Dendrite * Receives information Cell Body (soma) * Nucleus, keeps cell alive Axon * Transmits information to another neuron

Electrical Transmission inside Neurons Resting Potential - Interior of neuron has more negative ions and no signal is being transmitted Action Potential – A brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon when positive ions rush in

Communication Between Neurons Electrical impulse in Neuron stimulates terminal buttons at the end of an axon. Neurotransmitter chemicals produced. Synapse – Gap or junction between neurons where neurotransmitter chemicals cross to receptor sites on dendrites.

Neurotransmitter Chemicals - Affect learning, memory, mood, behavior and mental illness Effects of Major Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine – memory, sleep; Alzheimer’s Dopamine - Pleasure, learning, emotion, motivation, movement; Schizophrenia Serotonin - Mood, appetite, sleep, Depression Norepinephrine–stress,learning,ADHD,Depression Endorphins – pain reliever; Drug Addiction

The Old Brain Brain Stem - breathing, attention, basic functions; innermost Medulla – breathing, heart rate Cerebellum – voluntary movement; behind brain stem

Hypothalamus Regulates hunger, thirst, sex Links nervous system to endocrine system via pituitary gland

Limbic System Hippocampus Memory formation Amygdala Aggression, fear, emotions, stress Connected to sympathetic nervous system

Cerebrum Cerebrum * Cerebral cortex and corpus callosum Thinking, language Corpus Callosum * R & L Brain connection Cerebral Hemispheres * (in most people) R = perceptual skills, drawing pictures L = language, math Cerebellum Medulla

Frontal Lobes -- Control Thinking, planning, judgment, impulse control Broca’s area * L frontal lobe; production of language Broca’s aphasia – damage/loss of speech Association Areas * sensory and motor information is combined and associated with stored knowledge. Motor Cortex * Movement; signals to spinal cord & cerebellum

Studying the Brain EEG (Electroencephalograph) – electrodes record brain wave patterns CAT/CT (Computerized Axial Tomography) – cross sectional series of X-Rays MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) – magnetic fields identify tissue types fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) – magnetic field identifies structure & function PET (Positron Emission Tomography) –decay of radioactive material used to visualize brain activity & use of nutrients

Nervous System Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord Interprets, processes and responds to incoming information. Peripheral Nervous System - Composed of autonomic and somatic nervous system Links the CNS to the body’s sense receptors, muscles, and glands;

Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic – activates organs and glands; fight/flight stress response Parasympathetic – calms body, recovery

Plasticity The brain’s ability to change its structure and function in response to experience or damage

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Glands that secrete hormones. Hormones = Chemical messengers in the bloodstream. Hormones help regulate emotions and behaviors.

LEARNING * A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge resulting from experience

Classical Conditioning * Learning by association A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior (e.g. a reflex – such as salivation in Pavlov’s dogs or fear in Watson’s experiment with Little Albert)

Defining Terms Unconditioned Stimulus (US)* Naturally produces unconditioned response * Unconditioned Response (UR) –reflexive, innate Neutral stimulus (NS) produces no response. After pairing US & NS (conditioning), then NS becomes CS (conditioned stimulus *) CS = learned stimulus Conditioned stimulus produces conditioned response (CR) = learned response

Terms in Classical Conditioning Stimulus Generalization * (Watson & Little Albert) Respond to similar NS as if they were CS. Stimulus Discrimination * Learn to respond differently to similar stimuli Extinction * -- Remove US, present CS, conditioned response gradually declines Spontaneous Recovery * Learned response returns after extinction.

2. Operant Conditioning * Consequences determine frequency of behavior Reinforcement (reinforcer) Increases the frequency of behavior Punishment Suppresses behavior Shaping Reinforcement for successive approximations to the target behavior

Key Concepts Extinction * Remove reinforcers, behavior decreases Discriminative Stimulus * Cue for availability of reinforcement Generalization * Treat similar stimuli as discriminative stimulus Primary reinforcer * Natural, biological –e.g. food, water, sleep Secondary reinforcer * Learned, social or exchange value

Positive & Negative Reinforcement Both INCREASE Behavior Positive reinforcement * Increases behavior when given Negative reinforcement * Increases behavior when removed

Behavior Change What makes punishment more effective? Consistent Immediately after behavior Combined with reinforcement for alternate behavior Behavior Modification = Applying the principles of conditioning to change behavior. Token Economy - generic reinforcer can can be exchanged for something of value to an individual

4. Observational Learning * Learning by Observing the behavior of others. Learning by Modeling