Chapter Three: Part Two

Superheated Vapor In the superheated water Table A-6, T and P are the independent properties. The value of temperature to the right of the pressure is the saturation temperature for that pressure. 4

Compressed Liquid 7

Approximation of Compressed Liquid as Saturated Liquid 8

How to Choose the Right Table The correct table to use to find the thermodynamic properties of a real substance can always be determined by: comparing the known state properties to the properties in the saturation region. Given the temperature or pressure and one other property from the group v, u, h, and s, the following procedure is used. If We have subcooled liquid, use Table A-7 (use A-7E for English system of units) If We have saturated liquid, use Table A-4 or A-5 (use A-4E or A-5E for English system) We have saturated vapor-liquid mixture, use Table A-4 or A-5 (use A-4E or A-5E for English system) We have saturated vapor, use Table A-4 or A-5 (use A-4E or A-5E for English system) We have superheated vapor, use Table A-6 (use A-6E for English system) Where y is v, u, h, or s 10

120.23 1719.49 Sat. vapor-liquid mixture

120.23 1719.49 Sat. vapor-liquid mixture 232.1 0.535

120.23 1719.49 Sat. vapor-liquid mixture 395.6 232.1 0.535 Superheated vapor ---

120.23 1719.49 Sat. vapor-liquid mixture 395.6 232.1 0.535 Superheated vapor --- 313.90 Subcooled liquid 120.23 1719.49 Sat. vapor-liquid mixture 395.6 232.1 0.535 Superheated vapor --- 313.90 Subcooled liquid Sat. liquid 731.27 172.96

Equations of State The relationship among the state variables, temperature, pressure, and specific volume is called the equation of state. We now consider the equation of state for the vapor or gaseous phase of simple compressible substances. Boyle's Law At constant temperature, the volume of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure : V α 1/P Charles' Law At constant pressure, the volume of a given quantity of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature : V α T (in Kelvin) Ideal Gas where R is the constant of proportionality and is called the gas constant and takes on a different value for each gas. If a gas obeys this relation, it is called an ideal gas. We often write this equation as 16

The ideal gas equation of state may be written several ways. The gas constant for ideal gases is related to the universal gas constant valid for all substances through the molar mass (or molecular weight). Let Ru be the universal gas constant. Then, The mass, m, is related to the moles, N, of substance through the molecular weight or molar mass, M, see Table A-1. The molar mass is the ratio of mass to moles and has the same value regardless of the system of units. Since 1 kmol = 1000 gmol or 1000 gram-mole and 1 kg = 1000 g, 1 kmol of air has a mass of 28.97 kg or 28,970 grams. The ideal gas equation of state may be written several ways. 17

P = absolute pressure in MPa, or kPa Here P = absolute pressure in MPa, or kPa = molar specific volume in m3/kmol T = absolute temperature in K Ru = 8.314 kJ/(kmolK) Some values of the universal gas constant are Universal Gas Constant, Ru 8.314 kJ/(kmolK) 8.314 kPam3/(kmolK) 1.986 Btu/(lbmolR) 1545 ftlbf/(lbmolR) 10.73 psiaft3/(lbmolR) 18

1. Intermolecular forces are small. The ideal gas equation of state can be derived from basic principles if one assumes 1. Intermolecular forces are small. 2. Volume occupied by the particles is small. Example Determine the particular gas constant for air and hydrogen. 19

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Compressibility Factor (Z) The ideal gas equation of state is used when: the pressure is small compared to the critical pressure or the temperature is at least twice the critical temperature and the pressure is less than 10 times the critical pressure. The critical point is the state where there is an instantaneous change from the liquid phase to the vapor phase for a substance. Critical point data are given in Table A-1. To understand the above criteria and to determine how much the ideal gas equation of state deviates from the actual gas behavior, we introduce the compressibility factor Z as follows. or 21

Figure 3-51 gives a comparison of Z factors for various gases. For an ideal gas Z = 1, and the deviation of Z from unity measures the deviation of a gas from ideality. The compressibility factor is expressed as a function of the reduced pressure (PR) and the reduced temperature (TR). The Z factor is approximately the same for all gases at the same reduced temperature and reduced pressure, which are defined as where Pcr and Tcr are the critical pressure and temperature, respectively. The critical constant data for various substances are given in Table A-1 (Table A-1E for English System of Units). Figure 3-51 gives a comparison of Z factors for various gases. 22

Figure 3-51 When either P or T is unknown, Z can be determined from the compressibility chart (Figure A-34a and A-34b) with the help of the pseudo-reduced specific volume, defined as: 23

Behavior of Gases At very low pressures (PR <<1), the gases behave as an ideal gas regardless of temperature. At high temperatures (TR > 2), ideal-gas behavior can be assumed with good accuracy regardless of pressure (except when PR >>1). The deviation of a gas from ideal-gas behavior is greatest in the vicinity of the critical point. 24

Examples Example 1: Given that Vr =0.9 and Tr=1.05, Calculate P for a gas that has critical pressure of 1.2 MPa using the generalized compressibility chart. Example 2: Given that Vr =1.2 and Pr=0.7, Calculate T for a gas that has critical temperature of 300 K using the generalized compressibility chart. 25

Van der Waals Equation of State Accounts for intermolecular forces Volume occupied by molecules where 26

Van der Waals: Example A 3.27-m3 tank contains 100 kg of nitrogen at 225 K. Determine the pressure in the tank using the van der Waals equation. Properties: The gas constant, molar mass, critical pressure, and critical temperature of nitrogen are (Table A-1) R = 0.2968 kPa·m3/kg·K, M = 28.013 kg/kmol, Tcr = 126.2 K, Pcr = 3.39 Mpa

Van der Waals Then,

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The specific heat ratio k is defined as: The change in internal energy (du) and enthaply (dh) from state one to state two can be calculated using the following expressions: du= CvdT and dh= CpdT The specific heat ratio k is defined as: 30

Some relations for ideal gas Show that and 31

Example Calculate the change in specific internal energy (Δu) and the change in specific enthalpy (Δh) of nitrogen gas when temperature increases from 100 to 300 °C. Assume that Cv and Cp do not vary with temperature.

End of Chapter Three. 33