Characterizing and Classifying Prokaryotes 11 Characterizing and Classifying Prokaryotes

General Characteristics of Prokaryotic Organisms Prokaryotes Most diverse group of cellular microbes Thrive in various habitats Only a few capable of colonizing humans and causing disease

Coccus Spirillum Coccobacillus Spirochete Bacillus Pleomorphic Vibrio Figure 11.1 Typical prokaryotic morphologies. Coccus Spirillum Coccobacillus Spirochete Bacillus Pleomorphic Vibrio Star

General Characteristics of Prokaryotic Organisms Endospores Produced by Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus and Clostridium Each vegetative cell transforms into one endospore Each endospore germinates to form one vegetative cell Defensive strategy against unfavorable conditions Concern to food processors, health care professionals, and governments

Vegetative cell Endospore Endospore Figure 11.2 Locations of endospores. Vegetative cell Endospore Endospore

General Characteristics of Prokaryotic Organisms Reproduction of Prokaryotic Cells All reproduce asexually Three main methods: Binary fission (most common) Snapping division Budding

Bacterial Growth: Overview PLAY Bacterial Growth: Overview

Cell wall Cytoplasmic membrane Replicated DNA Cell replicates its DNA; Figure 11.3 Binary fission. Cell replicates its DNA; both molecules are attached to the cytoplasmic membrane. Cell wall Cytoplasmic membrane Replicated DNA The cytoplasmic membrane elongates, separating DNA molecules. Cross wall forms; membrane invaginates. Cross wall forms completely. Daughter cells may separate.

Newer, inner portion of cell wall Older, outer portion of cell wall Figure 11.4 Snapping division, a variation of binary fission. Newer, inner portion of cell wall Older, outer portion of cell wall Ruptured remains of old cell wall Hinge

Filamentous vegetative cells Spores Figure 11.5 Spores of actinomycetes. Filamentous vegetative cells Spores

DNA, which is attached to the cytoplasmic membrane, is replicated Figure 11.6 Budding. DNA, which is attached to the cytoplasmic membrane, is replicated Cell elongates to form a bud; the expanding cytoplasmic membrane carries one attached DNA molecule into the bud Young bud Daughter cell

General Characteristics of Prokaryotic Organisms Reproduction of Prokaryotic Cells Epulopiscium and its relatives have unique method of reproduction Live offspring emerge from the body of the dead mother cell (viviparity) First noted case of viviparous behavior in prokaryotic world

Figure 11.7 Viviparity in Epulopiscium.

General Characteristics of Prokaryotic Organisms Arrangements of Prokaryotic Cells Result from two aspects of division during binary fission: Planes in which cells divide Separation of daughter cells

Figure 11.8 Arrangements of cocci. Plane of division Diplococci Streptococci Tetrads Sarcinae Staphylococci

Figure 11.9 Arrangements of bacilli. Single bacillus Diplobacilli Streptobacilli Palisade V-shape

General Characteristics of Prokaryotic Organisms Dr. Bauman's Microbiology Video Tutor For more information, listen to Dr. Bauman describe the basic shapes of prokaryotic cells and how cell division determines cellular arrangements.

Modern Prokaryotic Classification Currently based on genetic relatedness of rRNA sequences Three domains: Archaea Bacteria Eukarya

BACTERIA ARCHAEA Figure 11.10 Prokaryotic taxonomy. PHYLUM CHLOROFLEXI (green nonsulfur) Thermophilic bacteria PHYLUM DEINOCOCCUS-THERMUS DEEPLY BRANCHING BACTERIA GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA PHYLUM PROTEOBACTERIA Rickettsias (α) Purple nonsulfur (α) Nitrifying (β) PHYLUM AQUIFICAE Nitrogen fixing (α) PHYLUM CHLOROBI (green sulfur) Myxobacteria (δ) Zetaproteobacteria (ζ) Campylobacteria (ε) Gammaproteobacteria (γ) PHYLUM CYANOBACTERIA Neisserias (β) PHYLUM FIBROBACTERES ARCHAEA PHYLUM BACTEROIDETES PHYLUM CHLAMYDIAE PHYLUM KORARCHAEOTA PHYLUM THAUMARCHAEOTA PHYLUM PLANCTOMYCETES PHYLUM SPIROCHAETES PHYLUM NANOARCHAEAOTA PHYLUM EURYARCHAEOTA Low G+C Gram-positive Methanogens PHYLUM CRENARCHAEOTA PHYLUM FIRMICUTES PHYLUM FUSOBACTERIA Clostridia Halophiles Mycoplasmas Selenomonas Bacilli, lactobacili, cocci Streptomyces Atopobium Arthrobacter Corynebacterium Mycobacterium Nocardia Thermophilic archaea PHYLUM ACTINOBACTERIA GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIAHigh G+C Gram-positive

Survey of Archaea Common features: Lack true peptidoglycan Cell membrane lipids have branched hydrocarbon chains AUG codon codes for methionine Two phyla: Crenarchaeota, Euryarchaeota Reproduce by binary fission, budding, or fragmentation Are cocci, bacilli, spirals, or pleomorphic Not known to cause disease

Figure 11.11 Archaea.

Survey of Archaea Extremophiles Require extreme conditions to survive Temperature, pH, and/or salinity Prominent members are thermophiles and halophiles

Survey of Archaea Extremophiles Thermophiles DNA, RNA, cytoplasmic membranes, and proteins do not function properly below 45ºC Hyperthermophiles — require temperatures over 80ºC Two representative genera: Thermococcus Pyrodictium

Figure 11.12 Some hyperthermophilic archaea live in hot springs.

Survey of Archaea Extremophiles Halophiles Inhabit extremely saline habitats Depend on greater than 9% NaCl to maintain integrity of cell walls Many contain red or orange pigments May protect from sunlight Most studied — Halobacterium salinarium

Figure 11.13 The habitat of halophiles: highly saline water.

Survey of Archaea Methanogens Largest group of archaea Convert carbon dioxide, hydrogen gas, and organic acids to methane gas Convert organic wastes in pond, lake, and ocean sediments to methane Some live in colons of animals One of primary sources of environmental methane Have produced ~10 trillion tons of methane that is buried in mud on ocean floor

Survey of Bacteria Deeply Branching and Phototrophic Bacteria Deeply Branching Bacteria Scientists believe these organisms are similar to earliest bacteria Autotrophic Live in habitats similar to those thought to exist on early Earth Aquifex Considered to represent earliest branch of bacteria Deinococcus Has outer membrane similar to Gram-negatives, but stains Gram-positive

Survey of Bacteria Deeply Branching and Phototrophic Bacteria Phototrophs that contain photosynthetic lamellae Autotrophic Divided into five groups based on pigments and source of electrons for photosynthesis: Blue-green bacteria (cyanobacteria) Green sulfur bacteria Green nonsulfur bacteria Purple sulfur bacteria Purple nonsulfur bacteria

Vegetative cell Akinete Heterocyst Sheath (glycocalyx) Figure 11.14 Examples of cyanobacteria with different growth habits. Vegetative cell Akinete Heterocyst Sheath (glycocalyx)

Figure 11.15 Deposits of sulfur within purple sulfur bacteria.

Table 11.1 Characteristics of the Major Groups of Phototrophic Bacteria

Photosynthesis: Comparing Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes PLAY

Survey of Bacteria Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacteria Clostridia Rod-shaped, obligate anaerobes Important in medicine and industry Microbes related to Clostridium include Epulopiscium, sulfate-reducing microbes, and Selenomonas

Survey of Bacteria Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacteria Mycoplasmas Facultative or obligate anaerobes Lack cell walls Smallest free-living cells Colonize mucous membranes of the respiratory and urinary tracts

Figure 11.16 The distinctive "fried egg" appearance of Mycoplasma colonies.

Survey of Bacteria Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacteria Other Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacilli and Cocci Bacillus Many are common in soil Bacillus thuringiensis toxin used by farmers and gardeners as an insecticide Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax

Bacillus thuringiensis Figure 11.17 Crystals of Bt toxin, produced by the endospore-forming Bacillus thuringiensis. Bt toxin Bacillus thuringiensis

Survey of Bacteria Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacteria Other Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacilli and Cocci Listeria Contaminates milk and meat products Capable of reproducing under refrigeration Can cross the placenta in pregnant women Lactobacillus Grows in the body but rarely causes disease Used in the production of various foods

Survey of Bacteria Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacteria Other Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacilli and Cocci Streptococcus and Enterococcus Cause numerous diseases Various strains of multi-drug-resistant streptococci Staphylococcus One of the most common inhabitants of humans Produces toxins and enzymes that contribute to disease

Table 11.2 Characteristics of Selected Gram-Positive Bacteria

Survey of Bacteria High G + C Gram-Positive Bacteria Corynebacterium Pleomorphic aerobes and facultative anaerobes Produces metachromatic granules Mycobacterium Aerobic rods that sometimes form filaments Slow growth partly due to mycolic acid in its cell walls Actinomycetes Form branching filaments resembling fungi Important genera include Actinomyces, Nocardia, Streptomyces

Figure 11.18 The branching filaments of actinomycetes. Spores

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Largest and most diverse group of bacteria Six classes of proteobacteria: Alphaproteobacteria Betaproteobacteria Gammaproteobacteria Deltaproteobacteria Epsilonproteobacteria Zetaproteobacteria

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Class Alphaproteobacteria Nitrogen fixers Grow in association with the roots of plants Two genera important to agriculture Azospirillum Rhizobium

Figure 11.19 A prostheca. Flagellum Prostheca

Figure 11.20 Nodules on pea plant roots.

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Class Alphaproteobacteria Nitrifying bacteria Oxidation of nitrogenous compounds provides electrons Important in the environment and agriculture Nitrobacter Purple nonsulfur phototrophs Grow at the bottom of lakes and ponds

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Class Alphaproteobacteria Pathogenic alphaproteobacteria Rickettsia Transmitted through bite of an arthropod Causes several human diseases Brucella Causes brucellosis

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Class Alphaproteobacteria Other alphaproteobacteria Acetobacter Gluconobacter Caulobacter

Rock or other substrate Figure 11.21 Growth and reproduction of Caulobacter. Rock or other substrate Prostheca Flagellum Swarmer cell Cell doubles in size or pf s Rosette

Figure 11.22 A plant gall.

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Class Betaproteobacteria Pathogenic betaproteobacteria Neisseria Inhabits mucous membranes of mammals Causes numerous diseases Bordetella Causes pertussis Burkholderia Colonizes moist environmental surfaces and respiratory passages of cystic fibrosis patients

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Class Betaproteobacteria Other betaproteobacteria Thiobacillus Recycles sulfur in the environment Zoogloea Forms flocs that assist in the treatment of sewage Sphaerotilus Flocs impede flow of waste in treatment plants

Figure 11.23 Flocs—slimy, tangled masses of bacteria and organic matter.

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Class Gammaproteobacteria Largest and most diverse class of proteobacteria Divided into subgroups: Purple sulfur bacteria Intracellular pathogens Methane oxidizers Glycolytic facultative anaerobes Pseudomonads

Figure 11.24 Purple sulfur bacteria. Roundworm

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Class Gammaproteobacteria Intracellular pathogens Legionella Causes Legionnaires' disease Coxiella Causes Q fever Methane oxidizers Use methane as a carbon and energy source Inhabit anaerobic environments

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Class Gammaproteobacteria Glycolytic facultative anaerobes Catabolize carbohydrates by glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway Divided into three families

Table 11.3 Representative Glycolytic Facultative Anaerobes of the Class Gammaproteobacteria

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Class Gammaproteobacteria Pseudomonads Break down numerous organic compounds Important pathogens of humans and animals Pseudomonas causes urinary tract, ear, and lung infections Azotobacter Azomonas

Figure 11.25 Pseudomonas is notable for its polar flagella.

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Class Deltaproteobacteria include a wide variety of metabolic types Desulfovibrio Bdellovibrio Myxobacteria

Figure 11.26 Bdellovibrio, a Gram-negative pathogen of other Gram-negative bacteria. bacterial prey Outer membrane 10 minutes Periplasmic space 10 seconds later Cytoplasmic membrane 20 minutes later 20 minutes later 150–210 minutes later

Figure 11.27 Life cycle of myxobacteria. Mounding when nutrients are depleted Binary fission (nutrients plentiful) Vegetative cells Mound of cells Slime trail Formation of fruiting body Sporangium Myxospores Sporangium Myxospores germinate to form vegetative cells once nutrients are restored Myxospores Fruiting body

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Class Epsilonproteobacteria Important genera include Campylobacter Helicobacter

Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Class Zetaproteobacteria First discovered based on DNA sequences DNA of zetaproteobacteria is common in oceans Only two organisms have been cultured Mariprofundus ferrooxydans is the only species to be formally named

Survey of Bacteria Other Gram-Negative Bacteria Chlamydias Grow intracellularly in mammals, birds, and some invertebrates Some are smaller than viruses Most common sexually transmitted bacteria in the United States

Survey of Bacteria Other Gram-Negative Bacteria Spirochetes Motile bacteria that move in a corkscrew motion Have diverse metabolism and habitats Treponema and Borrelia both cause disease in humans

Survey of Bacteria Other Gram-Negative Bacteria Bacteroids Bacteroides Inhabit digestive tracts of humans and animals Some species cause infections Cytophaga Aquatic, gliding bacteria Important in the degradation of raw sewage