12.2 Section Objectives – page 315 Distinguish between alleles for incomplete dominance and codominance. Explain the patterns of multiple allelic and polygenic inheritance. Analyze the pattern of sex-linked inheritance. Summarize how internal and external environments affect gene expression. 12.2 Section Objectives – page 315

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Complex Patterns of Inheritance Patterns of inheritance that are explained by Mendel’s experiments are often referred to as simple. However, many inheritance patterns are more complex than those studied by Mendel. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Incomplete dominance: Appearance of a third phenotype When inheritance follows a pattern of dominance, heterozygous and homozygous dominant individuals both have the same phenotype. When traits are inherited in an incomplete dominance pattern, however, the phenotype of heterozygous individuals is intermediate between those of the two homozygotes. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Incomplete dominance: Appearance of a third phenotype For example, if a homozygous red-flowered snapdragon plant (RR) is crossed with a homozygous white-flowered snapdragon plant (R′ R′), all of the F1 offspring will have pink flowers. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Incomplete dominance: Appearance of a third phenotype Red White All pink Red (RR) Pink (RR’) White (R’R’) Pink (RR’) All pink flowers 1 red: 2 pink: 1 white Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Incomplete dominance: Appearance of a third phenotype The new phenotype occurs because the flowers contain enzymes that control pigment production. The R allele codes for an enzyme that produces a red pigment. The R’ allele codes for a defective enzyme that makes no pigment. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Incomplete dominance: Appearance of a third phenotype Because the heterozygote has only one copy of the R allele, its flowers appear pink because they produce only half the amount of red pigment that red homozygote flowers produce. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Incomplete dominance: Appearance of a third phenotype Red White All pink Red (RR) Pink (RR’) White (R’R’) Pink (RR’) All pink flowers 1 red: 2 pink: 1 white Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Codominance: Expression of both alleles Codominant alleles cause the phenotypes of both homozygotes to be produced in heterozygous individuals. In codominance, both alleles are expressed equally. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Multiple phenotypes from multiple alleles Although each trait has only two alleles in the patterns of heredity you have studied thus far, it is common for more than two alleles to control a trait in a population. Traits controlled by more than two alleles have multiple alleles. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Sex determination In humans the diploid number of chromosomes is 46, or 23 pairs. There are 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes called autosomes. Homologous autosomes look alike. The 23rd pair of chromosomes differs in males and females. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Sex determination These two chromosomes, which determine the sex of an individual, are called sex chromosomes and are indicated by the letters X and Y. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Sex determination If you are female, your 23rd pair of chromosomes are homologous, XX. X X Female If you are male, your 23rd pair of chromosomes XY, look different. X Y Male Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Sex determination Males usually have one X and one Y chromosome and produce two kinds of gametes, X and Y. Females usually have two X chromosomes and produce only X gametes. It is the male gamete that determines the sex of the offspring. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 XY Male Sex determination X Y X XX Female XY Male XX Female X XX Female XY Male Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Sex-linked inheritance Traits controlled by genes located on sex chromosomes are called sex-linked traits. The alleles for sex-linked traits are written as superscripts of the X or Y chromosomes. Because the X and Y chromosomes are not homologous, the Y chromosome has no corresponding allele to one on the X chromosome and no superscript is used. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Sex-linked inheritance Also remember that any recessive allele on the X chromosome of a male will not be masked by a corresponding dominant allele on the Y chromosome. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Sex-linked inheritance White-eyed male (XrY) F2 Females: Red-eyed female (XRXR) all red eyed Males: 1/2 red eyed 1/2 white eyed F1 All red eyed Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Sex-linked inheritance The genes that govern sex-linked traits follow the inheritance pattern of the sex chromosome on which they are found. Click here to view movie. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Polygenic inheritance Polygenic inheritance is the inheritance pattern of a trait that is controlled by two or more genes. The genes may be on the same chromosome or on different chromosomes, and each gene may have two or more alleles. Uppercase and lowercase letters are used to represent the alleles. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Polygenic inheritance However, the allele represented by an uppercase letter is not dominant. All heterozygotes are intermediate in phenotype. In polygenic inheritance, each allele represented by an uppercase letter contributes a small, but equal, portion to the trait being expressed. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Polygenic inheritance The result is that the phenotypes usually show a continuous range of variability from the minimum value of the trait to the maximum value. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Environmental Influences The genetic makeup of an organism at fertilization determines only the organism’s potential to develop and function. As the organism develops, many factors can influence how the gene is expressed, or even whether the gene is expressed at all. Two such influences are the organism’s external and internal environments. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Influence of external environment Temperature, nutrition, light, chemicals, and infectious agents all can influence gene expression. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Influence of external environment In arctic foxes temperature has an effect on the expression of coat color. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Influence of external environment External influences can also be seen in leaves. Leaves can have different sizes, thicknesses, and shapes depending on the amount of light they receive. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322 Influence of internal environment The internal environments of males and females are different because of hormones and structural differences. An organism’s age can also affect gene function. Section 12.2 Summary – pages 315 - 322

Question 1 What is the difference between simple Mendelian inheritance and codominant inheritance? Section 2 Check

In Mendelian inheritance, heterozygous individuals will display the inherited dominant trait of the homozygotes. When traits are inherited in a codominant pattern the phenotypes of both homozygotes are displayed equally in the heterozygotes. Section 2 Check

Question 2 A. hormones B. internal environment Which of the following does NOT have an effect on male-pattern baldness? A. hormones B. internal environment C. sex-linked inheritance D. incomplete dominance The answer is D. Section 2 Check

Question 3 If the offspring of human mating have a 50-50 chance of being either male or female, why is the ratio not exactly 1:1 in a small population? Answer The ratio is not exactly 1:1 because the laws of probability govern fertilization. Section 2 Check