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12-2 Chromosomes and DNA Replication 12–1 DNA and12–2 DNA Replication 12-2 Chromosomes and DNA Replication Photo credit: Jacob Halaska/Index Stock Imagery, Inc. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

The Components and Structure of DNA DNA is made up of nucleotides. A nucleotide is a monomer of nucleic acids made up of a five-carbon sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

The Components and Structure of DNA There are four kinds of bases in in DNA: adenine guanine cytosine thymine DNA is made up of nucleotides. Each nucleotide has three parts: a deoxyribose molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are four different bases in DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

The Components and Structure of DNA Chargaff's Rules Erwin Chargaff discovered that: The percentages of guanine [G] and cytosine [C] bases are almost equal in any sample of DNA. The percentages of adenine [A] and thymine [T] bases are almost equal in any sample of DNA. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

The Components and Structure of DNA X-Ray Evidence  Rosalind Franklin used X-ray diffraction to get information about the structure of DNA. She aimed an X-ray beam at concentrated DNA samples and recorded the scattering pattern of the X-rays on film. This X-ray diffraction photograph of DNA was taken by Rosalind Franklin in the early 1950s. The X-shaped pattern in the center indicates that the structure of DNA is helical. Photo credit: ©Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Archives/Peter Arnold, Inc. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

The Components and Structure of DNA The Double Helix  Using clues from Franklin’s pattern, James Watson and Francis Crick built a model that explained how DNA carried information and could be copied. Watson and Crick's model of DNA was a double helix, in which two strands were wound around each other. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

The Components and Structure of DNA DNA Double Helix DNA is a double helix in which two strands are wound around each other. Each strand is made up of a chain of nucleotides. The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between adenine and thymine and between guanine and cytosine. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

The Components and Structure of DNA Watson and Crick discovered that hydrogen bonds can form only between certain base pairs—adenine and thymine, and guanine and cytosine. This principle is called base pairing. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA and Chromosomes DNA and Chromosomes In prokaryotic cells, DNA is located in the cytoplasm. Most prokaryotes have a single DNA molecule containing nearly all of the cell’s genetic information. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA and Chromosomes Chromosome Most prokaryotes, such as this E. coli bacterium, have only a single circular chromosome. This chromosome holds most of the organism’s DNA. E. Coli Bacterium Bases on the Chromosomes Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA and Chromosomes Many eukaryotes have 1000 times the amount of DNA as prokaryotes. Eukaryotic DNA is located in the cell nucleus inside chromosomes. The number of chromosomes varies widely from one species to the next. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA and Chromosomes Chromosome Structure Eukaryotic chromosomes contain DNA and protein, tightly packed together to form chromatin. Chromatin consists of DNA tightly coiled around proteins called histones. DNA and histone molecules form nucleosomes. Nucleosomes pack together, forming a thick fiber. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA and Chromosomes Eukaryotic Chromosome Structure Chromosome Nucleosome DNA double helix Coils Supercoils Eukaryotic chromosomes contain DNA wrapped around proteins called histones. The strands of nucleosomes are tightly coiled and supercoiled to form chromosomes. Histones Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA Replication DNA Replication Each strand of the DNA double helix has all the information needed to reconstruct the other half by the mechanism of base pairing. In most prokaryotes, DNA replication begins at a single point and continues in two directions. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA Replication In eukaryotic chromosomes, DNA replication occurs at hundreds of places. Replication proceeds in both directions until each chromosome is completely copied. The sites where separation and replication occur are called replication forks. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA Replication Duplicating DNA  Before a cell divides, it duplicates its DNA in a process called replication. Replication ensures that each resulting cell will have a complete set of DNA. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA Replication During DNA replication, the DNA molecule separates into two strands, then produces two new complementary strands following the rules of base pairing. Each strand of the double helix of DNA serves as a template for the new strand. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA Replication New Strand Original strand Nitrogen Bases Growth Growth During DNA replication, the DNA molecule produces two new complementary strands. Each strand of the double helix of DNA serves as a template for the new strand. Replication Fork Replication Fork DNA Polymerase Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA Replication How Replication Occurs DNA replication is carried out by enzymes that “unzip” a molecule of DNA. Hydrogen bonds between base pairs are broken and the two strands of DNA unwind. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall DNA Replication The principal enzyme involved in DNA replication is DNA polymerase. DNA polymerase joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule and then “proofreads” each new DNA strand. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall 12–2 Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall 12–2 In prokaryotic cells, DNA is found in the cytoplasm. nucleus. ribosome. cell membrane. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall 12–2 The first step in DNA replication is producing two new strands. separating the strands. producing DNA polymerase. correctly pairing bases. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall 12–2 A DNA molecule separates, and the sequence GCGAATTCG occurs in one strand. What is the base sequence on the other strand? GCGAATTCG CGCTTAAGC TATCCGGAT GATGGCCAG Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall 12–2 In addition to carrying out the replication of DNA, the enzyme DNA polymerase also functions to unzip the DNA molecule. regulate the time copying occurs in the cell cycle. “proofread” the new copies to minimize the number of mistakes. wrap the new strands onto histone proteins. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall 12–2 The structure that may play a role in regulating how genes are “read” to make a protein is the coil. histone. nucleosome. chromatin. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

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