Revolution & Enlightenment

Key Developments Ideas & inventions of the scientific rev. & enlightenment paved the way for a modern worldview based on rationalism & secularism Rationalism: belief that human reason is the chief source of knowledge Secularism: rejection of Religion as the only source of knowledge about the universe British colonies in North American rebelled and formed the United States, a nation founded on Enlightenment ideas

Section1: The Scientific Revolution Main Idea: The scientific revolution gave Europeans a new way to view the human races’ place in the universe.

Revolution in Astronomy Ptolemaic System Ptolemy was an ancient Greek/Egyptian astronomer who lived in the 2nd century CE Geocentric model of the universe Geo = Earth Centric = center

Ptolemaic System Planet Earth is at the center of the universe and does not move Universe is a series of concentric spheres Developed during the Middle Ages (1100-1500 CE)

Nicholas Copernicus Polish mathematician Published On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres in 1543 Argued Ptolemaic system was too complex Proposed a heliocentric model of the universe Helio = sun Argued the perceived movement of the sun was really the Earth rotating on its axis and moving on its orbit around the sun

Johannes Kepler German mathematician Expanded upon Copernicus’ research & developed laws of planetary motion The sun IS the center of the universe The orbits of planets around the sun were an ellipse (egg)

Galileo Galilei Italian astronomer & mathematician 1st European to make regular observations with a telescope Mountains on the moon Four moons revolving around Jupiter Sunspots Heavenly bodies were made of substances similar to those found on Earth, not light!

Galileo & the Catholic Church Ordered to abandon the Copernican model Contradicted the teachings of the Church & the Bible Galileo was put on trial and found guilty of heresy & disobedience

Sir Isaac Newton English mathematician Three Laws of Planetary Motion Universal Law of Gravitation Every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity Saw the universe as a huge machine operating according to natural laws This idea dominated the modern worldview until the mid 20th century

Chemistry & Medicine During the Middle Ages experts still relied on the work of 2nd century Greek Galen He used animal dissection to develop his ideas of human anatomy – and they were often wrong!

Andreas Vesalius Published On the Fabric of the Human Body in 1543 His discoveries made by dissecting human cadavers Detailed observations of organs and structure of the human body Overturned many of Galen’s theories, but still believed different types of blood flowed through veins & arteries

William Harvey On the Motion of the Heart and Blood (1628) Heart was the beginning point for circulation of blood in the body The same blood flows through veins & arteries Blood makes a complete circuit through the body before returning to the heart

Beginnings of Chemistry Robert Boyle Pioneer in controlled experiments Studied the properties of gasses: Boyle’s Law Antoine Lavoisier Developed a system of naming elements Regarded as the father of modern chemistry

Margaret Cavendish One of the most prominent female scientists of the 1600s Critical of the belief that humans were masters of nature through scientific knowledge

Women & Science in Germany Between 1650-1710 nearly 15% of all German astronomers were female Trained by their husbands and fathers at family observatories Maria Winkleman: most famous German female astronomer Despite her academic credentials she was denied a teaching position at the Berlin Academy b/c they feared hiring a woman would set a bad example

Rene Descartes & Reason 17th century French philosopher Considered the father of rationalism Rationalism: belief that reason is the main source of human knowledge; Our ability to think and reason through problems allows the human race to acquire knowledge

Descartes Famous Principles Separation of mind and matter Matter is dead, & could be studied using reason Matter was separate from humans The one fact that is true beyond any doubt: our own existence! Emphasized the power of human thought “I THINK, THEREFORE I AM!”

The Scientific Method Developed by Englishman Francis Bacon (mmmm…bacon!) Systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence Do NOT rely on the ideas of ancients Carefully organized experiments would lead to the development of correct principles

Section 2: The Enlightenment Main Idea: 18th Century philosophers used the ideas of the Scientific Revolution to reexamine all aspect of life…especially the role of government and the rights of human beings

What is the Enlightenment?? An 18th century philosophical (ideas!) movement based on the use of: Reason Discoveries of the Scientific Revolution Scientific Method In order to reexamine all aspects of life and society in order to create a better world!

Isaac Newton’s Influence Newton’s Laws (gravity, motion) showed that the physical world is like a giant machine operating under fixed laws Intellectuals (deep thinkers!) of the Enlightenment sought the laws that govern human society

John Locke’s Influence Tabula Rasa (blank mind) People become who they are through experience Through our senses Through our thoughts Through our emotions

John Locke’s Influence If people were exposed to the right experiences then they could be changed, creating a new & better society Led to the belief that people could discover the natural laws that all should follow in order to produce the ideal society

What is a philosophe?? Nickname for the intellectuals of the Enlightenment (French term for philosopher) Came mostly from the nobility & middle class Writers Professors Journalists Economists Social reformers

An International Movement Englishmen provided the philosophical inspiration for the Enlightenment, but… French philosophes influenced intellectuals across Europe and truly created a movement that changed the Western World Movement evolved over the span of a century Rational criticism should be applied to all areas of life, including religion & politics

Baron de Montesquieu Used the scientific method to find the natural laws governing society & politics Published his study, The Spirit of the Laws, in 1748

Montesquieu’s Types of Governments Republics-suitable for small states Despotism-appropriate for large states Ruler holds absolute power Monarchies-ideal for moderate size states Cited England as an example

Montesquieu’s Influence The most effective govt’s function b/c of a separation of powers A system of checks & balances prevents any one person or branch from gaining too much power

Montesquieu’s Influence 3 branches of Gov’t: Executive (enforce laws) Legislative (make laws) Judicial (interpret laws) In the United States: Executive = President Legislative = Congress Judicial = Supreme Court

Voltaire: Greatest of the Enlightenment Wrote endlessly! Novels Plays Letters Essays Best known for: Criticism of Christianity Belief in religious toleration

Voltaire & Religion Treatise on Toleration, 1763 Main Point: “all men are brothers under God.” Champion of religions philosophy Deism: Based on reason & natural law Viewed the universe as a clock: God created it Set it in motion Allows it to run according to natural laws WITHOUT His influence

Denis Diderot Most lasting contribution to the Enlightenment was editing the 28 volume Encyclopedia His goal with this collection of knowledge was to, “change the general way of thinking.”

Diderot’s Lasting Influence Encyclopedia was sold to doctors, lawyers, clergymen, teachers, & other members of the nobility & middle class This allowed the ideas of the Enlightenment to spread all over Europe Religious toleration Changes in the structure of the legal & political systems, as well as society as a whole

The Foundation of Modern Economics Physiocrats: a French group dedicated to discovering the natural economic laws governing society If people were free to go after their own economic self interest, all of society would benefit The State, then, should not impose any regulations on the economy. The gov’t should leave the economy alone! This is known by the French terms laissez-faire Meaning: to “let the people do what they want” “Hands-off” economics

Adam Smith: America’s Economic Inspiration Wrote the best interpretation of laissez-faire economics with Wealth of Nations , 1776 He assigned only 3 roles to the government: Protect citizens from invasion – Maintain an army Protect citizens from injustice – Maintain the police Keep up w/ public works & infrastructure projects too expensive for private individuals Roads, bridges, canals, dams, etc.

Cesare Beccaria & Justice Old Justice: cruel punishments intended to deter future crime Beccaria’s Justice: should not excessive in its brutality Opposed to capital punishment (death sentence)

Jean Jacques Rousseau The Social Contract, 1762 Through a SOCIAL CONTRACT, and entire society agrees to be governed by the GENERAL WILL The “general will” represents what is best for the entire society What are some examples of laws that govern our lives that protect the safety of all members of our community?

Women’s Rights: Mary Wollstonecraft Old Argument: women’s natural ways made them inferior to men, therefore it was necessary for males to dominate females Mary’s Argument: A Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792

Mary’s Two Main Points #1: The arbitrary power of men over women is as wrong as the arbitrary power of monarchs over their subjects! #2: Enlightenment is based on the ideal that all humans have the power to reason. Because women are able to reason they should have the same rights as men!

The Growth of Reading Both the amount of items being published & the number of readers grew rapidly during the 18th century Many new books were directed at the new reading middle class Daily newspapers also appeared for the first time in London in 1702

The Salon Elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy elite where guests gathered to discuss the new ideas & works of the philosophes Brought many different classes & groups of people together Key piece in the spread of Enlightenment ideas

The Salon

Religion in the Enlightenment Most of these new Enlightenment philosophes attacked the Christian churches, but most Europeans of the time were devout believers. The desire for a greater depth of religious experience led to new religious movements. One of these new religious movements was Methodism. Its founder, John Wesley, realized that salvation came by “the gift of God’s grace.”

John Wesley Anglican minister The word originated in Oxford, when certain students, formed themselves into what was also called 'The Holy Club', and because they lived by 'method', the name was given to them.

Religion in the Enlightenment Wesley preached to masses in open fields in England, leading many to a personal relationship with Jesus. (tent revival) He appealed to mainly lower and middle class people because Methodists helped each other do good works, giving its followers a sense of purpose.