DATA COMMUNICATION Lecture-35

Recap of Lecture 34 Types of Redundancy Checks Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC) Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

Overview of Lecture 35 Checksum Single-Bit Error Correction Hamming Code

Modulo-2 Division in a CRC Generator

Modulo-2 Division in a CRC Checker

One’s Complement Finding one’s complement Invert every 1 to 0 and 0 to 1 A and –A are one’s complement of each other +A = 1010  -A = 0101 +0 = 0000  -0 = 1111

Checksum Error detection method used by the higher layers The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits All sections are added and complemented to get the checksum, using one’s complement arithmetic

Checksum

Performance of Checksum Detects all errors involving an odd number of bits Detects most errors involving an even number of bits One pattern remains elusive

Example 9.7 Suppose a block of 16 bits need to be sent: 10101001 00111001 10101001 00111001 ---------------- 11100010 Sum 00011101 Checksum Sent pattern: 10101001 00111001 00011101 checksum

Example 9.8 Examples of no error and a burst error Segment 1 10101001 Segment1 10101111 Segment 2 00111001 Segment2 11111001 Checksum 00011101 Checksum 00011101 ----------------- ---------------- Sum 11111111 Sum 11000110 Complement 00000000 Complement 00111001

Performance of Checksum Error is invisible if a bit inversion is balanced by an opposite bit inversion in the corresponding digit of another segment Segment1 10111101 Segment2 00101001 Checksum 00011001 ---------------------- Sum 11111111  The error is undetected

Single-Bit Error Correction Error correction requires more redundancy bits than error detection One additional bit can detect single-bit errors Parity bit in VRC One bit for two states: error or no error

Single-Bit Error Correction To correct the error, more bits are required Error correction locates the invalid bit or bits 8 states for 7-bit data: no error, error in bit 1, and so on Looks like three bits of redundancy is adequate What if an error occurs in the redundancy bits?

Redundancy Bits (r) r must be able to indicate at least m+r+1 states m+r+1 states must be discoverable by r bits Therefore, 2r  m+r+1 If m=7, r=4 as 24  7+4+1

Redundancy Bits

Summary Checksum Single-Bit Error Correction Hamming Code

Suggested Reading Section 9.6, 9.7, “Data Communications and Networking” 2nd Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan