Chapter 5 Learning

MODULE 15 – Classical Conditioning What is learning? How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?

Introduction Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience

The Basics of Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is: Paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response

Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behavior John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) - Case study of “Little Albert” Phobias - Intense, irrational fears Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Extinction Occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and disappears Spontaneous recovery: Reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a: Period of rest and with no further conditioning

Figure 2 - Acquisition, Extinction, & Spontaneous Recovery

Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus generalization: Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus Stimulus discrimination: Ability to differentiate between stimuli

Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning: Challenging Basic Assumptions John Garcia Found that some organisms were biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that tasted like something that made them sick Learned taste aversion

MODULE 16 – Operant Conditioning What is the role of reward and punishment in learning? What are some practical methods for bringing about behavior change, both in ourselves and in others?

Operant Conditioning Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened Depends on its favorable or unfavorable consequences

Thorndike’s Law of Effect Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated

The Basics of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement: Process by which a stimulus increases the probability that: A preceding behavior will be repeated Reinforcer: Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again Primary Secondary

The Basics of Operant Conditioning Positive reinforcers: Stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response Negative reinforcers: Unpleasant stimulus Removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated

The Basics of Operant Conditioning Punishment: Stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again Positive punishment - Application of an unpleasant stimulus Negative punishment - Removal of something pleasant

Figure 3 - Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

Pros and Cons of Punishment: Why Reinforcement Beats Punishment Pros of punishment: Appropriate for dangerous behaviors Temporary suppression may provide opportunity to reinforce more desirable behavior Cons of punishment: Frequently ineffective Physical punishment has harmful side-effects Fear, lowered self-esteem Does not relay information about alternative, more desired behavior

Schedules of Reinforcement Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior Continuous reinforcement schedule: Reinforcing of a behavior every time it occurs Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: Reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time Two categories Number of response made before reinforcement Amount of time that elapses before reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses Variable-ratio schedule: Occurs after a varying number of responses

Figure 4 - Typical Outcomes of Different Reinforcement Schedules

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-interval schedule Provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed Overall rates of response are relatively low Variable-interval schedule Time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed

Discrimination and Generalization in Operant Conditioning Stimulus control training - Behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence Discriminative stimulus - Signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response

Shaping: Reinforcing What Doesn’t Come Naturally Rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Animal training Textbook organization

Biological Constraints on Learning Biological constraints - Built-in limitations in the ability of animals to learn particular behaviors Evolutionary explanations of behavior

Behavior Analysis and Behavior Modification Behavior modification: Promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing unwanted ones

Behavior Analysis and Behavior Modification Identify Goals and Target Behaviors Design a Data-Recording System and Record Preliminary Data Select a Behavior-Change Strategy Implement the Program Keep Careful Records after the Program is Implemented Evaluate and Alter the Ongoing Program

MODULE 17 - Cognitive Approaches to Learning What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?

Cognitive Learning Theory Study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning People develop an expectation that they will receive a reinforcer after making a response

Latent Learning New behavior is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it Learning occurs without reinforcement Cognitive map - Mental representation of spatial locations and directions

Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation Learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model Albert Bandura - Social cognitive approach Mirror neurons - Fire when one observes another person carrying out a behavior

Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter? Recent research supports the claim that: Watching high levels of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively

Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter? Several aspects of media violence may contribute to real-life aggressive behavior Experiencing violent media content seems to lower inhibitions against carrying out aggression Distorts our understanding of the meaning of others’ behavior Desensitizes people to violence

Does Culture Influence How We Learn? Relational learning style - People master material best through exposure to a full unit Analytical learning style - People master material best when they can: Carry out an initial analysis of the principles and components underlying a phenomenon