Macromolecules https://www. youtube. com/watch Macromolecules https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nt9u7CfVoc4 song…3:41 min.

Organic Compounds Compounds that contain CARBON are called organic. Macromolecules are large organic molecules.

Carbon (C) Carbon has 4 electrons in outer shell. Carbon can form covalent bonds with as many as 4 other atoms (elements). Usually with C, H, O or N. Example: CH4(methane)

Carbon is a Versatile Atom It has four electrons in an outer shell that holds eight Carbon can share its electrons with other atoms to form up to four covalent bonds Copyright Cmassengale

Carbon is a Versatile Atom It has four electrons in an outer shell that holds eight Carbon can share its electrons with other atoms to form up to four covalent bonds Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale Hydrocarbons The simplest carbon compounds … Contain only carbon & hydrogen atoms Copyright Cmassengale

Carbon can use its bonds to:: Attach to other carbons Form an endless diversity of carbon skeletons Copyright Cmassengale

Functional Groups are: Groups of atoms that give properties to the compounds to which they attach Lost Electrons Gained Electrons Copyright Cmassengale

Common Functional Groups Copyright Cmassengale

Macromolecules Large organic molecules. Also called POLYMERS. Made up of smaller “building blocks” called MONOMERS. Examples: 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)

Question: How Are Macromolecules Formed?

Answer: Dehydration Synthesis Also called “condensation reaction” Forms polymers by combining monomers by “removing water”. HO H H2O HO H

This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double sugar Linking Monomers Cells link monomers by a process called condensation or dehydration synthesis (removing a molecule of water) Remove H H2O Forms Remove OH This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double sugar Copyright Cmassengale

Question: How are Macromolecules separated or digested?

Answer: Hydrolysis Separates monomers by “adding water” HO H H2O HO H

Breaking Down Polymers Cells break down macromolecules by a process called hydrolysis (adding a molecule of water) Water added to split a double sugar Copyright Cmassengale

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates Small sugar molecules to large sugar molecules. Examples: A. monosaccharide B. disaccharide C. polysaccharide

Carbohydrates Monosaccharide: one sugar unit Examples: glucose (C6H12O6) deoxyribose ribose Fructose Galactose glucose

Copyright Cmassengale Monosaccharides: Called simple sugars Include glucose, fructose, & galactose Have the same chemical, but different structural formulas C6H12O6 Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale Monosaccharides: Called simple sugars Include glucose, fructose, & galactose Have the same chemical, but different structural formulas C6H12O6 Copyright Cmassengale

Carbohydrates Disaccharide: two sugar unit Examples: Sucrose (glucose+fructose) Lactose (glucose+galactose) Maltose (glucose+glucose) glucose

Copyright Cmassengale Disaccharides A disaccharide is a double sugar They’re made by joining two monosaccharides Involves removing a water molecule (condensation) Bond called a GLYCOSIDIC bond Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale Disaccharides Sucrose is composed of glucose + fructose Maltose is composed of 2 glucose molecules Lactose is made of galactose + glucose GLUCOSE Copyright Cmassengale

Carbohydrates Polysaccharide: many sugar units Examples: starch (bread, potatoes) glycogen (beef muscle) cellulose (lettuce, corn) glucose cellulose

Copyright Cmassengale Polysaccharides Complex carbohydrates Composed of many sugar monomers linked together Polymers of monosaccharide chains Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale Starch Starch is an example of a polysaccharide in plants Plant cells store starch for energy Potatoes and grains are major sources of starch in the human diet Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale Glycogen Glycogen is an example of a polysaccharide in animals Animals store excess sugar in the form of glycogen Glycogen is similar in structure to starch because BOTH are made of glucose monomers Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale Glycogen Glycogen is an example of a polysaccharide in animals Animals store excess sugar in the form of glycogen Glycogen is similar in structure to starch because BOTH are made of glucose monomers Copyright Cmassengale

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HLX3jEHPET8 “What are carbohydrates?” 2:56 min.

Lipids

Lipids General term for compounds which are not soluble in water. Lipids are soluble in hydrophobic solvents. Remember: “stores the most energy” Examples: 1. Fats 2. Phospholipids 3. Oils 4. Waxes 5. Steroid hormones 6. Triglycerides

Lipids Six functions of lipids: 1. Long term energy storage 2. Protection against heat loss (insulation) 3. Protection against physical shock 4. Protection against water loss 5. Chemical messengers (hormones) 6. Major component of membranes (phospholipids)

Lipids Triglycerides: composed of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids. = = H H-C----O glycerol O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 = O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 = fatty acids O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH =CH-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 =

Fatty Acids There are two kinds of fatty acids you may see these on food labels: 1. Saturated fatty acids: no double bonds (bad) 2. Unsaturated fatty acids: double bonds (good) O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 = saturated O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH =CH-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 = unsaturated

Copyright Cmassengale Fats in Organisms Most animal fats have a high proportion of saturated fatty acids & exist as solids at room temperature (butter, margarine, shortening) Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale Fats in Organisms Most plant oils tend to be low in saturated fatty acids & exist as liquids at room temperature (oils) Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale Triglyceride Monomer of lipids Composed of Glycerol & 3 fatty acid chains Glycerol forms the “backbone” of the fat Organic Alcohol (-OL ending) Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale Triglyceride Fatty Acid Chains Glycerol Copyright Cmassengale

Lipids & Cell Membranes Cell membranes are made of lipids called phospholipids Phospholipids have a head that is polar & attract water (hydrophilic) Phospholipids also have 2 tails that are nonpolar and do not attract water (hydrophobic) Copyright Cmassengale

“Lipid structure and function” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ESPNqKUluRs 2:50 min.

Proteins

Proteins (Polypeptides) Amino acids (20 different kinds of aa) bonded together by peptide bonds (polypeptides). Six functions of proteins: 1. Storage: albumin (egg white) 2. Transport: hemoglobin 3. Regulatory: hormones 4. Movement: muscles 5. Structural: membranes, hair, nails 6. Enzymes: cellular reactions

Proteins (Polypeptides) Four levels of protein structure: A. Primary Structure B. Secondary Structure C. Tertiary Structure D. Quaternary Structure

Copyright Cmassengale 20 Amino Acid Monomers Copyright Cmassengale

Structure of Amino Acids group Carboxyl group Amino acids have a central carbon with 4 things boded to it: R group Amino group –NH2 Carboxyl group -COOH Hydrogen -H Side groups Side group -R Serine-hydrophillic Leucine -hydrophobic Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale Linking Amino Acids Carboxyl Cells link amino acids together to make proteins Amino Side Group The process is called condensation or dehydration Dehydration Synthesis Peptide bonds form to hold the amino acids together Peptide Bond Copyright Cmassengale

Primary Structure Amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds (straight chains) aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4 aa5 aa6 Peptide Bonds Amino Acids (aa)

Primary Protein Structure The primary structure is the specific sequence of amino acids in a protein Called polypeptide Amino Acid Copyright Cmassengale

Secondary Structure 3-dimensional folding arrangement of a primary structure into coils and pleats held together by hydrogen bonds. Two examples: Alpha Helix Beta Pleated Sheet Hydrogen Bonds

Tertiary Structure Secondary structures bent and folded into a more complex 3-D arrangement of joined poypeptides Bonds: H-bonds, ionic, disulfide bridges (S-S) Call a “subunit”. Alpha Helix Beta Pleated Sheet

Quaternary Structure Composed of 2 or more “subunits” Globular in shape Form in Aqueous environments Example: enzymes (hemoglobin) subunits

Denaturating Proteins Changes in temperature & pH can denature (unfold) a protein so it no longer works Cooking denatures protein in eggs Milk protein separates into curds & whey when it denatures Copyright Cmassengale

Other Important Proteins Blood sugar level is controlled by a protein called insulin Insulin causes the liver to uptake and store excess sugar as Glycogen The cell membrane also contains proteins Receptor proteins help cells recognize other cells Copyright Cmassengale

Other Important Proteins Blood sugar level is controlled by a protein called insulin Insulin causes the liver to uptake and store excess sugar as Glycogen The cell membrane also contains proteins Receptor proteins help cells recognize other cells Copyright Cmassengale

“What is a Protein?” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qBRFIMcxZNM 3;38 min.

Nucleic Acids

Copyright Cmassengale

Nucleic acids Two types: a. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA- double helix) b. Ribonucleic acid (RNA-single strand) Nucleic acids are composed of long chains of nucleotides linked by dehydration synthesis.

Copyright Cmassengale Nucleic Acids Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or T) Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides Phosphate group Thymine (T) Sugar (deoxyribose) Phosphate Base Sugar Nucleotide Copyright Cmassengale

Nucleotide – Nucleic acid monomer Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale Nucleic Acids Copyright Cmassengale

Nucleic acids Nucleotides include: phosphate group pentose sugar (5-carbon) nitrogenous bases: adenine (A) thymine (T) DNA only uracil (U) RNA only cytosine (C) guanine (G)

Copyright Cmassengale Bases Each DNA nucleotide has one of the following bases: Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Copyright Cmassengale

DNA - double helix P O 1 2 3 4 5 P O 1 2 3 4 5 G C T A

Copyright Cmassengale DNA Two strands of DNA join together to form a double helix Base pair Double helix Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale RNA – Ribonucleic Acid Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or U) Ribose sugar has an extra –OH or hydroxyl group Uracil Phosphate group It has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) Sugar (ribose) Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale ATP – Cellular Energy ATP is used by cells for energy Adenosine triphosphate Made of a nucleotide with 3 phosphate groups Copyright Cmassengale

Copyright Cmassengale ATP – Cellular Energy Energy is stored in the chemical bonds of ATP The last 2 phosphate bonds are HIGH ENERGY Breaking the last phosphate bond releases energy for cellular work and produces ADP and a free phosphate ADP (adenosine Diphosphate) can be rejoined to the free phosphate to make more ATP Copyright Cmassengale

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QWf2jcznLsY Bozeman..10:46 “The molecules of Life”