Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 7 Cognition Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What is Memory? Human memory is an information processing system that works constructively to encode, store, and retrieve information. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What is Memory? Information Processing Model – A cognitive understanding of memory emphasizing how information is changed when it is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Human Memory is Good at: Information in which attention is focused. Information in which we are interested. Information that arouses us emotionally. Information that we rehearse. Human Memory is Good at: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Memory’s Three Basic Tasks Encoding Storage Retrieval Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Memory’s Three Basic Functions Encoding Storage Retrieval Involves modification of information to fit the preferred format of the memory system. Elaboration – Deliberate encoding in which you connect a new concept with existing information. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Memory’s Three Basic Functions Encoding Storage Retrieval Involves retention of encoded material over time. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Memory’s Three Basic Functions Encoding Storage Retrieval Involves the location and recovery of information from memory. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Do We Form Memories? Each of the three memory stages encodes and stores memories in a different way, but they work together to transform sensory experience into a lasting record that has a pattern of meaning. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The First Stage: Sensory Memory Capacity - 12 – 16 items Duration – About ¼ of a second Structure - There is a separate sensory register for each sense. Vision – iconic memory Hearing – echoic memory Function – Briefly holds information awaiting entry into working memory. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal, also called short-term memory or STM. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Second Stage: Working Memory Capacity - “Magic number 7” Duration – About 20-30 seconds Structure – Central executive, phonological loop, and sketchpad. Function – Attaches meaning to stimulation and makes associations among ideas and events. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Encoding and Storage in Working Memory Chunking – Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units. Maintenance rehearsal – Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Encoding and Storage in Working Memory Elaborative rehearsal – Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM. Levels-of-processing theory – Explanation for the fact that information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful terms in LTM will be better remembered. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Stores material organized according to meaning, also called LTM. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory Capacity - Unlimited Duration – Unlimited Structure – Procedural memory and declarative memory. Function – Storage of information. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory Procedural memory – Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done. Declarative memory – Division of LTM that stores explicit information (also known as fact memory). Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory Episodic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories for personal events, or “episodes.” Semantic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, including meanings of words and concepts. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Long-term memory Declarative memory (knowing what) Procedural memory (knowing how) Semantic memory Includes memory for: language, facts, general knowledge Episodic memory Includes memory for: events, personal experiences Includes memory for: motor skills, operant and classical conditioning Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Biological Basis of Long-Term Memory Engram – The physical trace of memory. Consolidation – The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Biological Basis of Long-Term Memory Anterograde amnesia – Inability to form memories for new information. Retrograde amnesia – Inability to remember information previously stored in memory. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Flashbulb Memory An exceptionally clear recollection of an important emotion-packed event (a very vivid episodic memory). Tragic accident Death Graduation Wedding Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Do We Retrieve Memories? Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how they are cued. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Do We Retrieve Memories? Implicit memory – Memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness. Explicit memory – Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Retrieval Cues Retrieval cues – Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior. Priming – Technique for retrieving implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Recall and Recognition Recall – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must reproduce previously presented information. Recognition – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Factors Affecting Retrieval Encoding specificity principle – The more closely the retrieval cues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better the information will be remembered. *context-dependent memory* Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Factors Affecting Retrieval Mood-congruent memory – A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one’s mood. TOT (tip of the tongue) phenomenon – The inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Review… Types of Memory A. Declarative B. Episodic C. Working D. Procedural E. Priming Memory Task Writing your name Words to the Star Spangled Banner Your friend’s birthday party from last week Figuring out a tip for the waiter Tying your shoe Being fast to recognize the name of a famous artist when you only recently learned the name What you ate last Thanksgiving Remembering a phone number as you dial it Remembering the parts of the limbic system Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Why Does Memory Sometimes Fail Us? Most of our memory problems arise from memory’s “seven sins” – which are really by-products of otherwise adaptive features of human memory. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Memory’s “Seven Sins” Transience Absent-Mindedness Blocking Misattribution Suggestibility Bias Persistence Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Transience The impermanence of a long-term memory; based on the idea that long-term memories gradually fade in strength over time. Forgetting curve – A graph plotting the amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve Percent retained 60 50 40 30 20 10 Days 5 10 15 20 25 30 Recall decreases rapidly, then reaches a plateau, after which little more is forgotten. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Forgetting caused by lapses in attention. Absent-Mindedness Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Blocking Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved. Proactive interference Retroactive interference Serial position effect Also known as the primacy - recency effect Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Blocking Proactive interference When previously stored information prevents the learning and remembering of new information. Retroactive interference When newly learned information prevents the retrieval of previously stored material. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Misattribution Memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved, but they are associated with the wrong time, place, or person. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Suggestibility Process of memory distortion as a result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion. Misinformation effect – The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation. - Loftus Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Suggestibility How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? Estimates were about 25% higher when the word smashed was used. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Bias An attitude, belief, emotion, or experience that distorts memories. Expectancy bias – A tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one’s expectations. Self-consistency bias – Idea that we are more consistent than we actually are. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Persistence Memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Advantages of the “Seven Sins” of Memory Despite the grief they cause us, the “seven sins” may actually be by-products of adaptive features of memory. For example, absent-mindedness is the by-product of the useful ability to shift our attention. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Improving Memory with Mnemonics Mnemonics – Techniques for improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long-term memory. What are some examples of mnemonic devices? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Do Children Acquire Language? Infants and children face an especially important developmental task with the acquisition of language. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Children Acquire Language Innateness theory of language – Children learn language mainly by following an inborn program for acquiring vocabulary and grammar. Language acquisition device (LAD) – Structure in the brain innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar. - Noam Chomsky Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 28

How Children Acquire Language Early stages of language acquisition include the following: The babbling stage The one-word stage The two-word stage Telegraphic speech (short, simple sentences) The naming explosion (18 months) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 29

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Rules of Grammar Grammar – The rules of a language. Morphemes – Meaningful units of language that make up words. - walking, walked, children, foxes Overregularization – Applying a grammatical rule too widely and thereby creating incorrect forms. (e.g. using “hitted” and “feets”) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 29

How Children Acquire Language Other language skills: Social rules of conversation Abstract words Hope Truth Believe Love Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 30

Can you think of another example??? Language Semantics The study of meaning in language. “A mind is a terrible thing to waste.” “Do you mind if I sit next to you?” Can you think of another example???

What Are the Components of Thought? Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create and manipulate mental representations, such as concepts, images, schemas, and scripts. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Concepts Concepts – Mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experience. -Natural concepts represent objects and events. Prototype – a representative example of a concept. -Artificial concepts are defined by rules. We organize much of our declarative memories into concept hierarchies. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Animal Has skin Eats Breathes Bird Fish Has wings Can fly Has feathers Has fins Can swim Has gills Canary Ostrich Shark Salmon Can sing Is yellow Can’t fly Is tall Can bite Is dangerous Is pink Is edible Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Event-related potentials – Brain waves shown on an EEG in response to stimulation. Thought and the Brain Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Schemas and Scripts Help you Know What to Expect Schema – A knowledge cluster or general framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations in one’s life. Script – A cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings. - Event schema Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

What Abilities Do Good Thinkers Possess? Good thinkers not only have a repertoire of effective algorithms and heuristics, they know how to avoid the common impediments to problem solving and decision making. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Problem Solving Good problem solvers are skilled at: Identifying the problem Selecting a strategy Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Selecting a Strategy Algorithms – Problem-solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome if correctly applied. Heuristics – Cognitive strategies used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks; they do not guarantee a correct solution. “I before E, except after C” Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Heuristics Useful heuristics include: Working backward Searching for analogies Breaking a big problem into smaller problems Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Obstacles to Problem Solving Mental set – Tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for a previous problem. Functional fixedness – Inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Obstacles to Problem Solving Other obstacles include: Self-imposed limitations Lack of interest Fatigue Drugs (legal and illegal) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Ignoring or finding fault with information that does not fit our opinions, and seeking information with which we agree. Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Tendency, after learning about an event, to believe that one could have predicted the event in advance. Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate on a completely unrelated quantity. Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Faulty heuristic strategy based on presumption that, once a person or event is categorized, it shares all features of other members in that category. Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based on information that can be recalled from personal experience. Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 End of Chapter 7 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007