Chapter 11 Augmented Feedback

Objectives This chapter will help you to understand the following: The types of augmented feedback and their role in the conceptual model How augmented feedback functions to influence performance and learning The various properties of augmented feedback The influence of the various ways in which augmented feedback can be delivered

Figure 11.1

Feedback Inherent feedback is information provided as a natural consequence of making an action; it is sometimes called intrinsic feedback. Augmented feedback is information from the measured performance outcome that is fed back to the learner by some artificial means; it is sometimes called extrinsic feedback.

Figure 11.2

Types of Augmented Feedback Knowledge of performance (KP) is augmented information about the movement pattern the learner has just made; it is sometimes referred to as kinematic feedback. Knowledge of results (KR) is augmented verbal (or verbalizable) information fed back to the learner about the success of an action with respect to the environmental goal.

Functions of Augmented Feedback Produces motivation, or energizes the learner to increase effort Provides information about errors as a basis for corrections Directs the learner’s attention toward the movement or the movement goal Creates a dependency, leading to problems at feedback withdrawal

Motivational Properties The effects of feedback as a motivating tool are primarily indirect in their influence (e.g., KR encourages the learner to keep practicing, and the results of this additional practice are what influences learning). Motivational feedback can also have a direct effect on learning: Learning was facilitated by “good” feedback (Chiviacowsky and Wulf, 2007).

Informational Properties Probably the most important component of feedback for motor learning is the information it provides about patterns of action. This feedback about errors, giving direction for modifying future performance, is the focus that makes the instructor so important for motor learning.

Attentional Focusing Properties KR directs the learner to think about externally directed information. The information content of KP directs the learner’s attention to process movement- related information, an internally focused process. Researchers have studied ways of scheduling the provision of feedback so the most useful information content can be delivered without detrimental effects.

Dependency-Producing Properties When feedback that contains information for error correction is given frequently, it tends to guide behavior toward the goal movement. Guidance is fine when present, but the learner can also become dependent on the guidance, resulting in poor performance when the guidance is removed (Salmoni, Schmidt, & Walter, 1984).

How Much Feedback Should Be Given? In general, too much information is not useful. A good rule is to decide what error is most fundamental and focus the feedback on that.

Absolute and Relative Frequency of Feedback Absolute frequency of feedback refers to the total number of feedback presentations given to a learner across a set of trials in practice. Relative frequency of feedback refers to the percentage of trials receiving feedback.

Faded Feedback Faded frequency is a feedback schedule in which the relative frequency is high in early practice and reduced in later practice. The instructor can adjust feedback scheduling to the proficiency and improvement rate of each learner separately, thus tailoring feedback to individual differences in capabilities. The ultimate goal is to generate capability for the learner to produce the action on her own without a dependency on feedback.

Bandwidth Feedback Bandwidth feedback is a procedure for delivering feedback in which errors are signaled only if they fall outside some range of correctness. Produces faded-feedback frequency as a by-product Increased absence of error feedback can also be viewed as a form of rewarding feedback Withholding information on a set of trials that fall within the bandwidth fosters more consistent actions

Summary Feedback Summary feedback is information about the effectiveness of performance on a series of trials that is presented only after the series has been completed. There is an optimal number of trials to include in summary feedback reports, with either too few or too many trials decreasing learning.

Summary Feedback: How Does It Work? Summary feedback might prevent the dependency-producing effects of frequent feedback. Summary feedback might produce more stable movements. Summary feedback appears to encourage learners to analyze their inherent movement-produced feedback to learn to detect their own errors.

Average Feedback Average feedback is a type of augmented feedback that presents a statistical average of two or more trials rather than results on any one of them. Might block dependency-producing effects Allows the instructor to formulate a more complete idea of the learner’s error tendency Gives the learner more reliable information about what to change and how to change it

Learner-Determined Feedback Schedules Learner-determined feedback is a schedule in which the provision of feedback is determined by the learner. Learners likely need (or at least request) feedback far less frequently than instructors tend to provide it. There may be an important motivational component driving the request for feedback.

Figure 11.11

Feedback During the Movement The information can be used to regulate ongoing actions by giving a basis for correcting errors and pushing the movement closer to the action goals. Concurrent feedback is augmented feedback presented simultaneously with an ongoing action. Physical guidance techniques represent a large class of methods in which the learner is forced to produce the correct movement patterning.

Feedback After the Movement When empty feedback delays have been examined, scientists have almost never found systematic effects on learning. One exception to this generalization about feedback delay is instantaneous feedback. Intervening activities of a different task generally degrade learning as measured on retention tests (Marteniuk, 1986; Swinnen, 1990). (continued)

Feedback After the Movement (continued) Trials-delay of feedback is a procedure in which the presentation of feedback for a movement is delayed; during the delay the learner practices one or more other trials of the same task. Evidence says that trials-delay technique is not detrimental, and it may be more effective for learning than presenting feedback after each trial. (continued)

Feedback After the Movement (Continued) Intervening subjective estimations A study by Guadagnoli and Kohl (2001) revealed that the negative effects of 100% KR frequency were reversed if learners made subjective estimates of error before the delivery of the feedback on each trial