Argumentation Strategies The Structure of Arguments

The Toulmin Model Data Claim Warrant The argument you are trying to make Evidence (logos) Ties your evidence to your argument

Types of Claims Fact Value Policy Makes a statement about something that can be proven true or false The New York Islanders won first pick in the draft lottery. Value Suggests that one idea is favorable over another An object or an action is important to or cherished by an individual or society National security is more important than personal freedom. Policy Calls for a change to the established program The federal government should guarantee healthcare for all of its citizens.

Reasoning from Evidence Argumentation involves reasoning or logic This is the WARRANT Types of reasoning: Inductive Deductive Sign Analogy Cause-effect

Inductive Reasoning Bases a general conclusion on an examination of several specific instances or examples ESL programs in five states failed to improve standardized test scores for language minority students. Therefore, the same results would occur with a federal plan based on the same principles. Test your inductive reasoning: Are there a sufficient number of examples? Are the examples typical? Does the conclusion allow for exceptions?

Deductive Reasoning Takes generally accepted claims and applies them to specific situations in order to prove that what is true in a general sense is also true in a specific case. The traditional structure is called a SYLLOGISM = major premise (a statement of fact, value, or policy about a general class of situations, events, or people), minor premise (relates specific situations, events, or people to the general class), and a conclusion (the logical step linking the two). Major premise: The right of privacy is important to our society. Minor premise: Protection of medical records is a privacy right. Conclusion: Protection of medical records is important to our society. Testing your deductive claim: Is your major premise true or accurate? Is your minor premise true or accurate? Do your major and minor premises relate to one another?

Sign A way of reaching a logical conclusion based of physical evidence Think about Law and Order, CSI, etc. This is helpful for environment debates Testing for sign Is the conclusion based on the sign applicable in all instances? Is it possible to draw more than one conclusion from the sign?

Analogies Are comparisons Can be literal or figurative Literal – compares similar things If Canada has a health care system that had worked, you could argue that there are sufficient similarities between Canada and the United States to believe that the system would work in the U.S. as well. Figurative – compares dissimilar things Cutting federal funds would be the same as cutting off oxygen supply to the body Use analogies to add emphasis to your argument

Cause-Effect If you are claiming a causal link between two things, you need to prove that one actually causes the other. Important in establishing the need to change a policy There is a difference between a causal link and a correlation Testing cause-effect: Can you separate cause from effect? Is the cause strong enough to produce the effect?