Thinking About Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior 2e Charles T. Blair-Broeker Randal M. Ernst

Cognitive Domain

Memory Chapter

Forgetting and Memory Construction Module 23

Information Processing Model Encoding – process of getting information into the memory system Storage - retention of encoded information over time Retrieval – process of getting encoded information out of memory storage

Forgetting as Encoding Failure Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

Encoding Failures People fail to encode information because: It is perceived as unimportant to them It is not necessary to know the information A decrease in the brain’s ability to encode

Which is the Right Penny? (From Nickerson & Adams, 1979)

Which is the Right Penny? (From Nickerson & Adams, 1979)

Forgetting as Storage Failure Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) German philosopher who did early memory studies with nonsense syllables Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”

Ebbinghaus’s research and more recent research indicates that some memories do decay. Most of this forgetting happens in the first few days after we “learn” the information. Memories that survive this initial period and continue to last for years are called permastore memories.

The Forgetting Curve (Adapted from Ebbinghaus, 1885)

Permastore Memory Long-term memories that are especially resistant to forgetting and are likely to last a lifetime

Forgetting as Retrieval Failure: Interference Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

Interference A retrieval problem when one memory gets in the way of remembering another Two types of interference: Proactive interference Retroactive interference

Proactive Interference When an older memory disrupts the recall of a newer memory

Proactive Interference

Retroactive Interference When a more recent memory disrupts the recall of an older memory

Retroactive Interference

Forgetting as Retrieval Failure: Motivated Forgetting Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

Repression Part of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory Process of moving anxiety-producing memories to the unconscious Supposed means of protecting oneself from painful memories Not well-supported by research; stressful incidents are actually more likely to be encoded

Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

Memory Jigsaw Analogy Memories, rather than being like a video tape, are formed as bits and pieces. People may retrieve only some of the pieces of the memory Try the following

Textbook, all-nighter, quiz, flashcards, review, lecture, vocabulary, GPA, outline, essay, notes, semester, exam, due date, grading scale, assignment, unit test, memorize, class project, handouts, tutor, chapter guide

So which words were really on the list, which were imagined? Your memory was constructed out of some things that were real and some that were not, and distinguishing between the two categories will now be difficult.

Elizabeth Loftus (1944- ) Was the first to demo in a lab this tendency to construct memories Has found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions Demonstrated the misinformation effect

Misinformation Effect Incorporating misleading information into a memory of an event Affects eyewitness testimony Elizabeth Loftus how reliable is your memory? Why Eyewitnesses Get It Wrong Jennifer and Ronald

Misinformation Effect

TOT Tip of the Tongue phenomenom Failing to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent, or about to happen When you experience TOT you often recall one or more features of a target word (first letter, syllable, similar sound)

When experiencing TOT phenomenom, individuals report A feeling of being seized by the state, feeling something like mild anguish while searching for the word, and a sense of relief when the word is found Becomes more frequent with age Becomes a medical condition if too frequent that it interferes with learning Called anomic aphasia (brain damage)

2 explanations: Direct Access View: memory strength is not enough to recall an item, but is strong enough to trigger the state Inferential View: they arise when the rememberer tries to piece together different clues about the word

FOK Feeling of knowing state: the feeling that one will be able to recognize an item that is currently unaccessable, from a list of items

Memory Construction: Children’s Recall Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

Children’s Testimony on Abuse Research has shown children’s testimony to be unreliable Children are very open to suggestions As children mature their memories improve, get better with age There are ways to mimimize false memories

Accurate Interviewing Methods To promote accuracy with children’s testimony the interviewer should: Phrase questions in a way the child can understand Have no prior contact with the child Use neutral language and do not lead or suggest answers

Memory Construction: Recovered Memories Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

Many legitimate therapists are convinced that some of their clients of abuse have repressed memories and that they have helped them recover those memories through therapy Other therapists are skeptical and worry that therapists might be leading suggestible people into constructing false memories

There are two specific questions: 1. Can repression of memories occur? 2. Can recovered memories be false? See page 421

Accuracy of Memories

The End

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