Chapter 2– Theories of Development The Developing Person Through the Life Span 8e by Kathleen Stassen Berger Chapter 2– Theories of Development

What Theories Do Theory An orderly, integrated set of statements that Describes Explains Predicts Developmental Theory provides a framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older. Example: Infant-caregiver attachment theories Describe the behavior of babies age 6-8 months as they seek affection/comfort from familiar adults Explain how and why babies develop this desire to bond with caregivers Predict the consequences of this bond on future relationships Provide organizing frameworks for our observations Guiding and give meaning to what we see and observe Must have scientific verification to remain valid We have a theory and research to test it – if it turns out we are right we can use it to guide what we do Theories have to be tested using research procedures agreed upon by the scientific community and the findings must be replicated/repeated over time

Grand Theories Includes Psychoanalytic, Behavioral, and Cognitive theories. All three are comprehensive, enduring, and widely applied.

Psychoanalytic Theory A theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior. Psychoanalytic theory originated with Sigmund Freud (1856– 1939)

Psychoanalytic Theory Erik Erikson (1902–1994) Described eight developmental stages, each characterized by a challenging developmental crisis. His first five stages build on Freud’s theory; but he also described three adult stages.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Behaviorism A theory of human development that studies observable behavior. Also called learning theory as it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned. Classical Conditioning Stimulus – Response Operant Conditioning Reinforcers and Punishments Social Learning Modeling

Classical Conditioning Behaviorism Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Dogs & salivation John Watson (1920s) Little Albert A person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus Gradually reacting to the neutral stimulus with the same response as to the meaningful one.

Behaviorism B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) A particular action is followed either by something desired or by something unwanted. Frequency of a behavior can be increased or decreased by reinforcers or punishments

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Punishment Increasing the probability of a response (Food - A pat on the back - An “A” - A sticker) Punishment Decreasing the probability of a response (Being grounded – A spanking – No dessert)

Social Learning Theory Behaviorism Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura (b. 1925) Emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person’s behavior. Modeling- people learn by observing other people and then copying them. Self-efficacy- how effective people think they are when it comes to changing themselves or altering their social context.

Cognitive Theory Thoughts and expectations profoundly affect action. Focuses on changes in how people think over time. Jean Piaget (1896–1980) Cognitive-Developmental Theory

Cognitive Theory

Cognitive Theory Adaptation – creating new ideas (schemes)through direct interaction with the environment Two types of cognitive adaptation: Assimilation - new experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas Accommodation - old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences

Cognitive Equilibrium Cognitive Theory Cognitive Equilibrium A state of mental balance, no confusion Interpret new ideas through past ideas Needed for intellectual advancement If new experience is not understandable, cognitive disequilibrium can occur

Information Processing Cognitive Theory Information Processing Not a single theory but a framework Inspired by how a computer works How people think before they respond

Newer Theories Sociocultural Theory Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) Development results from a person’s interaction with their social and cultural surroundings Culture is integral to development Cooperative dialogues are necessary

Sociocultural Theory Zone of proximal development Made up of the skills, knowledge, and concepts that the learner is close to acquiring Learner needs help to master Learning must be individualized

The Universal Perspective Humanism Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) Carl Rogers (1902-1987) Stresses the potential of humans for good All people have the same needs Emphasize what people have in common

The Universal Perspective Evolutionary Theory Based on Darwin’s ideas Natural Selection Survival of the Fittest Very controversial in psychological circles Humans are more alike than different Human development influenced by drives to survive and reproduce

What Theories Contribute Eclectic perspective The approach taken by most developmentalists Aspects of each of the various theories of development are applied rather than adhering exclusively to one

What Theories Contribute