Ch. 7: Learning A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

Classical Conditioning (Behaviorist approach to learning--Watson) A type of learning where a stimulus gains the power to cause a response because it predicts another stimulus that already produces that response Form of learning by association

Stimulus-Response Stimulus - anything in the environment that one can respond to Response – any behavior or action

Stimulus-Response Relationship

Stimulus-Response Relationship

Components of classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that triggers a response automatically and reflexively

Unconditioned Response (UCR) The automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus The relationship between the UCS and UCR must be reflexive and not learned

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) A stimulus that through learning has gained the power to cause a conditioned response The CS must be a neutral stimulus before conditioning occurs.

Conditioned Response (CR) The response to the conditioned stimulus Usually the same behavior as the UCR

Acquisition The process of developing a learned response The subject learns a new response (CR) to a previously neutral stimulus (CS)

Extinction The diminishing of a learned response In classical conditioning, the continual presentation of the CS without the UCS

Spontaneous Recovery The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) A Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning while doing experiments on the digestive system of dogs

Pavlov’s Research Apparatus

Pavlov’s Experiment

Generalization Process in which an organism produces the same response to two similar stimuli The more similar the substitute stimulus is to the original used in conditioning, the stronger the generalized response

Discrimination A process in which an organism produces different responses to two similar stimuli The subject learns that one stimuli predicts the UCS and the other does not.

Little Albert 11-month-old infant Watson and his assistant, Rosalie Rayner, conditioned Albert to be frightened of white rats Led to questions about experimental ethics: informed consent? Harm/trauma? Debriefing?

Little Albert – During Conditioning

Little Albert - Generalization

Taste Aversion Subjects become classically conditioned to avoid specific tastes (but not other stimuli, like the place where you ate it), because the tastes are associated with nausea. Other evolutionary fears? Heights, thunderstorms, snakes, spiders? John Garcia (1917-): discovered that taster aversion usually has a delay (associate nausea/illness with foods that are spoiled, toxic or poisonous)

Associations Advertising: examples of how products are paired with images to create an impression? Cars, cigarettes, drinks, etc. Old, comfy clothes Negative associations: Place where someone died School Song you heard when you broke up Other examples?

Robert Rescorla (1940- ) Developed a theory emphasizing the importance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning Pointed out that subjects had to determine (think) whether the CS was a reliable predictor of the UCS

Biological Perspective We are predisposed to learn things that affect our survival. We are predisposed to avoid threats our ancestors faced--food that made us sick, storms, heights, snakes, etc.--but not modern-day threats--cars, water pollution, etc.

Observational Learning Learning by observing and watching others (the model) Model: in observational learning, the person whose behavior the subject watches and imitates

Albert Bandura (1925- ) American psychologist who has done major studies in observational learning Studies the consequences a model has on subjects Bobo Doll experiments

Bobo Doll Experiments Children watched an adult model show aggressive behavior toward a bobo doll Three experimental conditions: The model was praised. The model was punished. The model received no consequences for the aggressive behavior.

Modeling Requirements Bandura suggests four requirements for effective modeling to occur: Attention Retention Ability to reproduce the behavior Motivation

Antisocial/Prosocial Behavior Antisocial behavior - negative, destructive unhelpful behavior Prosocial behavior – positive, constructive, helpful behavior Both types of behavior can be modeled effectively.

Operant Conditioning A type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior The frequency will increase if the consequence is reinforcing to the subject. The frequency will decrease if the consequence is not reinforcing to the subject.

Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) Author of the law of effect: behaviors with favorable consequences will occur more frequently. Behaviors with unfavorable consequences will occur less frequently.

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply them in the real world Designed the Skinner Box, or operant chamber: used rats & pigeons

Reinforcement/Punishment Reinforcement - Any consequence that increases the likelihood of the behavior it follows Punishment - Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior it follows The subject determines if a consequence is reinforcing or punishing

Positive Reinforcement Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state The subject receives something they want Will strengthen the behavior

Negative Reinforcement Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state Something the subject doesn’t like is removed Will strengthen the behavior

Positive/Negative Reinforcement

Immediate/Delayed Reinforcement Immediate reinforcement is more effective than delayed reinforcement Ability to delay gratification predicts higher achievement

Primary Reinforcement Something that is naturally reinforcing Examples: food, warmth, water, etc. The item is reinforcing in and of itself

Secondary Reinforcement Something that a person has learned to value or finds rewarding because it is paired with a primary reinforcer Money is a good example

Types of Punishment An undesirable event following a behavior A desirable state or event ends following a behavior

Positive Punishment Negative Punishment

Negative Effects of Punishment Doesn’t prevent the undesirable behavior when away from the punisher Can lead to fear, anxiety, and lower self- esteem Children who are punished physically may learn to use aggression as a means to solve problems.

Positive Effects of Punishment Punishment can effectively control certain behaviors. Especially useful if teaching a child not to do a dangerous behavior Most still suggest reinforcing an incompatible behavior rather than using punishment

Shaping Reinforcement of behaviors that are more and more similar to the one you want to occur Technique used to establish a new behavior Video clips: Skinner & pigeon, Sheldon & Penny (BBT), training dogs

Discrimination The ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli Learning to respond to one stimuli but not to a similar stimuli

Extinction In operant conditioning, the loss of a conditioned behavior when consequences no longer follow it. The subject no longer responds since the reinforcement or punishment has stopped.

Continuous reinforcement A schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response Most useful way to establish a behavior The behavior will extinguish quickly once the reinforcement stops.

Partial Reinforcement A schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses Includes the following types: Fixed-interval and variable interval Fixed-ratio and variable-ratio

Fixed-Interval Schedule A partial reinforcement schedule that rewards only the first correct response after some defined period of time i.e. weekly quiz in a class

Variable-Interval Schedule A partial reinforcement that rewards the first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time i.e. “pop” quiz in a class

Fixed-Ratio Schedule A partial reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after some defined number of correct responses The faster the subject responds, the more reinforcements they will receive.

Variable-Ratio Schedule A partial reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses This schedule is very resistant to extinction. Sometimes called the “gambler’s schedule”; similar to a slot machine

Schedules of Reinforcement

Latent Learning Learning that takes place in absence of an apparent reward

Cognitive Map A mental representation of a place Experiments showed rats could learn a maze without any reinforcements

Overjustification Effect The effect of promising a reward for doing what someone already likes to do The reward may lessen and replace the person’s original, natural motivation, so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated

Biological Predisposition Research suggests some species are biologically predisposed to learn specific behaviors