Psychological theories of learning and instruction

What do you bring to this session? What psychological theories have you been introduced to? In teaching training? Since then? How are these theories relevant to your practice? Can you give any concrete examples of application of theory?

Purposes To introduce some behavioural, cognitive, constructivist and socio-cultural ideas about learning To consider the contributions of Pavlov, Skinner, Piaget, Vygotsky and others in developing these ideas To describe some applications of these learning ‘theories’ To consider the relationship between and implication of theories of learning for theories of instruction

What is a theory? everyday use academic use scientific use A conjecture, an opinion, or a speculation academic use The body of rules, ideas, principles, and techniques that applies to a particular subject scientific use a theory is a mathematical or logical explanation, or a testable model of the manner of interaction of a set of natural phenomena, capable of predicting future occurrences or observations of the same kind, and capable of being tested through experiment or through empirical observation

What is a ‘learning theory’? In psychology and education, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning How can we make sense of the fact that there are so many?

Learning theory - Orientations Behaviourist – observable changes in behaviour Cognitivist – internal mental processes Humanist – personal actions to fulfil potential Social and situational – interaction and observation in social context

Behaviourism

A behaviourist definition of learning “Learning is any more or less permanent change in behaviour which is the result of experience.”

Notable behaviourists Ivan Pavlov - ‘Classical conditioning’

Notable behaviourists B Frederic Skinner – ‘Operant conditioning’ A conditioned response is reinforced by a succeeding stimulus Responses to a stimulus can be learned according to the reinforcement given ‘Law of positive reinforcement’

Kinds of reinforcement and punishment (Woolfolk, 2008)

Evaluating and Using Behaviourist Approaches What are the strengths of this sort of approach to learning? What are its limitations? Are there any ways in which conditioning or other aspects of behaviourism are to be found in educational practice today?

So, are you a cognitivist?

Cognitivism Ideas started in 1920s when problems revealed with applying behaviourist approaches (rats and children not behaving as they should!) Reaction to ‘black box’ view of the learner’s mind Input Processing Output

Cognitivism Shift from viewing learners and behaviours as products of environmental stimuli to viewing learners as actively constructing meaning and knowledge from stimuli and experience … extending and transforming the knowledge they already have

A cognitivist definition of learning “Cognitivist theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganisation of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information.”

Jean Piaget Learning as an active process of constructing knowledge Development of ‘schemata’ – internal knowledge structures Assimilation – accommodation - equilibriation Theory of cognitive development

Stage theory

Piaget’s influence ‘Child-centred’ learning Curriculum development projects linked to stage theory Cognitive acceleration

Lev Vygotsky Emphasised the social dimension of learning and therefore the role of language in mediating learning Recognised the importance of the ‘teacher’ whether in the form of an adult or peer (the more capable/knowledgeable ‘other’) Importance of scaffolding

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.”

Piaget vs Vygotsky?

Constructivism Linked to cognitivist ideas about learning (i.e. the learner constructs his or her own reality not just memorises the right answers) “Starting from where the learners are” New experiences need to be reconciled with existing ideas

Variants of constructivism Individual constructivism (Piagetian) Social constructivism (Vygotskian) Radical constructivism (von Glaserfeld)

Characteristics of personal constructivism Learners are active in the process of learning and have a responsibility for their own learning Individual construction of meaning often involves interpersonal negotiation Knowledge is not objectified but personal Learners bring their own ideas (alternative frameworks) to learning situations which may be implicit/tacit but must be taken seriously Long term learning requires reconciliation of existing ideas with new experiences

Characteristics of social constructivism Emphasis on the importance of learning in groups through social interaction Emphasis on the role of language in learning Focus on quantity and quality of language particularly ‘dialogue’ (structured exchanges between teachers and learners or between learners) Development into socio-cultural perspectives on learning

Radical Constructivism A post-modern perspective An individual’s response to his or her experience is set above what objectively might happen Notions of emancipation and empowerment built into this view Reconstruction is a political activity challenging existing power structures.

What about Theories of Instruction? By themselves, theories of learning do not offer prescriptions for teaching They may or may not have clear implications for the structure of process of teaching or instruction Theories of instruction need to be developed from preceding theories of learning

Directed instruction Grounded in behaviourist ideas about learning Combined with Information-Processing (cognitivist) models

Robert Gagné’s nine ‘events of instruction’ Gaining attention Informing the learner of the objective Stimulating recall of pre-requisite learning Presenting new material Providing learning guidance Eliciting performance Providing feedback about correctness Assessing performance Enhancing retention and recall

Characterising a theory of instruction (Jerome Bruner) Creating a predisposition towards learning Devising ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner Deciding on the most effective sequences in which to present material Considering the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments