Argument and Fallacies Mrs. Gatz English 9

What is Argument? When we say “argument”, we don’t mean this:

What is Argument? For our purposes, an argument is an opinion about an issue (or topic) and the reasons for that opinion.

Argument = Claim + Reasons What is Argument? There are three parts to every argument. Issue- the topic Claim- Your opinion or belief Reasons- Evidence and/or what led you to think the way you do Ex. The legal drinking age should not be lowered because a lower drinking age will increase youth alcohol consumption and alcohol-related traffic incidents. Argument = Claim + Reasons

Counterargument Counterargument: What other people think. An objection to your claim, or the argument against your claim. Ex. The legal drinking age should be lowered because…

Rebuttal Your response to the counterarguments is called your rebuttal. Here you attempt to disprove your opponent’s argument.

Evidence Evidence is proof of a claim. Types Statistical- involving numbers Testimonial- from an expert or perceived expert Anecdotal- based on someone’s personal observations Analogical- uses comparison

Two Types of Learners Sponges Prospectors

Two Types of Learners Sponges Absorb what they read/hear/see Value quantity over quality; takes LOTS of notes Form conclusions without evaluating sources Unaware of fallacious reasoning Prospectors Question what they read/hear/see Value quality over quantity; takes RELEVANT notes Evaluate sources before accepting information as fact Identify fallacious reasoning

Beware of Faulty Reasoning: Fallacies What are fallacies? Statements which sound logical and factual, but are not. Fallacies make your argument less valid. Many advertisements rely on your inability to recognize fallacies. Sometimes that is just for fun; other times it’s just bad reasoning. But sometimes it’s meant to mess with your head!

Faulty Emotional Appeal Appeals to the emotions of an audience which are irrelevant to the argument or draw attention form the issue being argued. NOTE: Sometimes emotional appeals can be okay, but make sure they reinforce your argument, not replace it. This WWII propaganda shows American children nearly touched by the Nazi schwastika. The ad wants you to buy war bonds, which really have nothing to do with Nazis, but the subject matter of the ad might make you frightened for the little children, which in turn would make you want to buy the war bonds.

Hasty Generalization Coming to a conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence. This is like stereotyping. Ex. “All students who wear black listen to death metal.”

Is this Hasty Generalization? “Every single pit bull I have ever seen was sweet and gentle. The pit bull breed must be kind-hearted by nature.”

Name-Calling (ad hominem or “the man”) Attacking the person who holds the view rather than the view itself. *Sound familiar? Attacking an opponent’s personal life instead of attacking his or her belief or view.

Name-Calling (ad hominem) “I know everybody thinks Einstein’s Theory of Relativity is correct, but I can’t accept it; Einstein didn’t even comb his hair!” Someone may have or have had character flaws, but his argument can still be valid.

Straw Man Fallacy Changing or exaggerating an opponent’s argument to make it easier to disprove. Ex. MOM: I think you’ve spent too much time playing video games today. SON: Oh, so I should just throw away my new XBOX1 and do math homework all day?!

Black-White (Either/Or) Fallacy Describing a situation as if there were only two choices when in fact there may be several. Ex. “Only real men love football.” Only two options are offered. The assertion is that you can only be a real man if you love football. If you don’t you’re not a real man. There are of course men who don’t love football. There are men who just like football. And there are men who sort of like football. There are men who don’t like it. And there are men who hate it. There are more than two choices available, but the speaker is acting as if there are only two.

Either/Or #2 “The cafeteria is in bad shape. Either we tear it down and build a brand new one, or we continue to risk students’ safety. We’ll have to tear it down.”

False Cause and Effect Saying that because event B followed event A, A caused B. Ex. Since he started eating Cheerios for breakfast (A), Michael has been getting better grades (B). Cheerios must have made him smarter!

Faulty Use of Authority Attempt to support claims by citing the opinions of experts. It’s a fallacy when the individuals cited have no expertise on the issue. NOTE: This is also called celebrity endorsement or testimonial, and it is often used by advertisers to sell a product. This can be used to support a logical argument, but make sure the authority figure is actually an authority in the subject you are discussing. What does Chuck Norris know about hamsters? This does not mean if a person does have some sort of expertise that it is a fallacy. This only occurs when the person is not an expert on the issue or topic at hand.

Circular Reasoning A statement that assumes that the question being argued has already been proved. Ex. "Vegetarianism is good for you because you cut out all meat from your diet." This assumes that cutting the meat out of your diet is good for you. This person has offered no proof of that, so this is a fallacy.

Slippery Slope An arguer predicts that taking a first step will lead inevitably to a second, usually undesirable step Ex. "We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you know, they'll be charging $90,000 a semester!" In slippery slope, an arguer feels that one step will lead to an undesirable second.

Slippery Slope #2 “If congress passes this law requiring trigger locks on guns, next they’ll tell us to register our guns. Then they’ll know exactly who to confiscate them from. And when only outlaws have guns, they’ll have nothing to fear.”

Red Herring Avoiding the question and asserting something irrelevant to the issue. Ex. SON: Why can’t I go see the movie The Day of the Spatulas with my friends? DAD: Because January 1st is on a Friday this year. A red herring is a dead fish that smells pretty bad. In this fallacy, it’s a symbol of an argument that has nothing to do with the original argument.

Red Herring #2 “Sparkledent is great for reducing cavities. Dentists say cavities are the number one dental problem in America.”

Remember This… Effective persuasion is always built on logical appeals and evidence—REAL evidence. Emotional appeals can help to reinforce logical arguments, but they can never replace them. Recognize fallacies when you hear/read/see them! Avoid fallacies in your own writing and speaking!