Introduction to Sociology Week 2 8/29/08 Mike Klemp-North

Week 2 Class Outline For the Good of the Order Attendance New Enrollees Blackboard Updates E-Mails and Meebo Syllabus Questions Sociology Chapter 1and 2 Q and A

Competencies and Methodologies Main Competencies Covered 1. Describe sociological perspectives Methodologies Lecture, Small Group Work, Discussion,

The Origins of Sociology One of the youngest of academic disciplines, sociology has its origins in powerful social forces. Social Change Industrialization, urbanization, political revolution, and a new awareness of society Science 3-Stages: theological, metaphysical & scientific Positivism–A way of understanding based on science Gender & Race These important contributions have been pushed to the margins of society.

Sociological Theory Theory: a statement of how and why facts are related Explains social behavior to the real world Theoretical paradigm: A set of fundamental assumptions that guides thinking Structural-functional Social-conflict Symbolic-interaction

Structural-Functional Paradigm The basics A macro-level orientation, concerned with broad patterns that shape society as a whole Views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability Key elements: Social structure refers to any relatively stable patterns of social behavior found in social institutions. Social function refers to the consequences for the operation of society as a whole.

Who’s Who in the Structural-Functional Paradigm Auguste Comte Importance of social integration during times of rapid change Emile Durkheim Helped establish sociology as a discipline Herbert Spencer Compared society to the human body Robert K. Merton Manifest functions are recognized and intended consequences. Latent functions are unrecognized and unintended consequences. Social dysfunctions are undesirable consequences.

Structural – Functional Paradigm Critique Structural – Functional Paradigm

Social-Conflict Paradigm The basics: A macro-oriented paradigm Views society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change Key elements: Society is structured in ways to benefit a few at the expense of the majority. Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to social inequality. Dominant group vs. disadvantaged group relations

Who’s Who in the Social-Conflict Paradigm Karl Marx The importance of social class in inequality and social conflict W.E.B. Du Bois Race as the major problem facing the United States in the 20th century

Feminism and the Gender-Conflict Approach A point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between women and men Closely linked to feminism, the advocacy of social equality for women and men Women important to the development of sociology: Harriet Martineau and Jane Addams

The Race-Conflict Approach A point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories People of color important to the development of sociology: Ida Wells Barnett and W.E.B. Du Bois

Social Conflict Perspective Critique Social Conflict Perspective

Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm The basics A micro-level orientation, a close-up focus on social interactions in specific situations Views society as the product of everyday interactions of individuals Key elements Society is nothing more than the shared reality that people construct as they interact with one another. Society is a complex, ever-changing mosaic of subjective meanings.

Who’s Who in the Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm Max Weber Understanding a setting from the people in it George Herbert Mead How we build personalities from social experience Erving Goffman Dramaturgical analysis George Homans & Peter Blau Social-exchange analysis

Symbolic-Interaction Critique Symbolic-Interaction

Applying Theory Major Theoretical Approaches

Critical Evaluation Structural-Functional Social-Conflict Too broad, ignores inequalities of social class, race & gender, focuses on stability at the expense of conflict Social-Conflict Too broad, ignores how shared values and mutual interdependence unify society, pursues political goals Symbolic-Interaction Ignores larger social structures, effects of culture, factors such as class, gender & race

Applying the Approaches Sociology of Sports

Structural Functional A structural-functional approach directs our attention to the ways in which sports help society operate Sports have functional and dysfunctional consequences

Sports and Conflict Social-conflict analysis points out that games people play reflect their social standing. Sports have been oriented mostly toward males. Big league sports excluded people of color for decades. Sports in the United States are bound up with inequalities based on gender, race, and economic power.

Figure 1.2 “Stacking” in Professional Football

Sports as Interaction Following the symbolic-interaction approach, sports are less a system than an ongoing process.

Is Sociology Nothing More than Stereotypes?

“sociology advocates no one political orientation”

C. Wright Mills “The sociological imagination is not merely a fashion. It is a quality of mind that seems most dramatically to promise an understanding of the intimate realities of ourselves in connection with larger social realities.”

Walter Lippmann The facts we see depend on where we are placed and the habits of our eyes.

Sociological Investigation A logical system that derives knowledge From direct, systematic observation

Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “The United States is a middle-class society in which most people are more or less equal.” “Most poor people don’t want to work.” “Differences in the behavior of females and males are just ‘human nature.’ ” “People change as they grow old, losing many interests as they focus on their health.” “Most people marry because they are in love.”

Three Frameworks for Sociological Investigation Scientific sociology The study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior Empirical evidence–Information we can verify with our senses Interpretive sociology The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world Critical sociology The study of society that focuses on the need for change

Scientific Sociology Terminology Concepts–A mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form Variables–Concepts whose values change from case to case Measurement–A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case Operationalizing a variable–Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable

Scientific Sociology Terminology Reliability–Consistency in measurement Does an instrument provide for a consistent measure of the subject matter? Validity–Precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure Does an instrument actually measure what it sets out to measure?

Causation Cause and effect Types of variables Correlation A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another Types of variables Independent: The variable that causes the change Dependent: The variable that changes (its value depends upon the independent variable) Correlation A relationship by which two or more variables change together Spurious correlation An apparent, though false, relationship between two or more variables caused by some other variable

Correlation Does Not Mean Causation Conditions for cause and effect to be considered Existence of a correlation The independent (causal) variable precedes the dependent variable in time. No evidence suggests that a third variable is responsible for a spurious correlation between the two original variables.

Figure 2.1a Correlation and Cause: An Example Correlation is not the same as cause. Here’s why. (Continued on next slide.)

Figure 2.1b (cont.)

Does religion drive people to drink?

Three other terms - - Mean Median Mode Average of results Middle result Mode Most frequent result

What are the three statistics from above? 1,2,2,3,4,4,5

The US Household income’s mean is 63,344 and median is 46,326. No! The US Household income’s mean is 63,344 and median is 46,326.

Scientific Sociology Terminology Objectivity A state of personal neutrality in conducting research Value-free research Weber said sociologists should strive to be dispassionate and detached. Replication Repetition of research by other investigators Helps limit distortion caused by personal values

Limitations of Scientific Sociology Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions. The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied. Social patterns change. Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value- free research difficult.

Gender and Research Androcentricity Gynocentricity Overgeneralizing Approaching the topic from a male-only perspective Gynocentricity Approaching the topic from a female-only perspective (less common than androcentricity) Overgeneralizing Using data collected from one sex and applying the findings to both sexes

Gender and Research Gender blindness Double standards Interference The failure to consider the effect of gender at all Double standards Using different standards to judge males and females Interference This occurs when a subject reacts to the sex of the researcher, interfering with the research operation.

Summing Up Three Research Orientations

Ethical Guidelines for Research Must strive to be technically competent & fair-minded Must disclose findings in full without omitting significant data & be willing to share their data Must protect the safety, rights, and privacy of subjects Must obtain informed consent; subjects are aware of of risks and responsibilities and agree Must disclose all sources of funding & avoid conflicts of interest Must demonstrate cultural sensitivity

Sociological Research Methods A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research Experiment–A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions Hypothesis–An unverified statement of a relationship between variables (an educated guess) Placebo–A treatment that seems to be the same but has no effect on the experiment Hawthorne effect–A change in a subject's behavior caused by the awareness of being studied

Steps in the Ideal Experiment Specify the dependent and independent variables. Measure the dependent variable. Expose dependent variable to independent variable. Re-measure dependent variable to see if predicted change took place. If no change, modify hypothesis & re-test

Control To be certain that the change in the dependent variable was due to the exposure to the independent variable, the researcher must keep constant other factors that might intrude. One method is to break group into experimental and control groups. Experimental group is exposed to independent variable. Control group is exposed to a placebo.

Survey Research A research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or interview Population The people who are the focus of the research Sample The part of the population that represents the whole Random Sample Drawing a sample from a population so that every element of the population has an equal chance of being selected

$35,000 to $50,000 The Talented One Hundred: Lois Benjamin’s African American Elite Source: Adapted from Lois Benjamin, The Black Elite: Facing the Color Line in the Twilight of the 20th Century (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1991), p. 276)

Questionnaire A series of written questions that a researcher presents to subjects Closed-ended A series of fixed responses; easy to analyze but narrows range of responses Open-ended Free response; broadens range of responses but harder to analyze Most surveys are self-administered; pre-testing can avoid costly problems.

Other Research Methods Interview A series of questions that a researcher administers in person Participant observation A research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining in their routine activities Existing Data

Summing Up Four Research Methods

Interplay Between Theory and Method Inductive logical thought Reasoning that transforms specific observations into general theory Induction “increases” from specific to general Deductive logical thought Reasoning that transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for testing Deduction “decreases” from general to specific

Figure 2.2 Deductive and Inductive Logical Thought Sociologists link theory and method through both inductive and deductive logic.

Ten Steps In Sociological Investigation Select and define topic Review the literature Develop key questions to ask Assess requirements for study Consider ethical issues Select a research methodology Collect the data Interpret the findings State conclusions Publish the findings

Lying with Statistics Data selection Data interpretation Data might not be the whole truth. Data interpretation As if numbers can only mean one thing Use of graphs to “spin” the truth Manipulating timeframes on graphs Using scale to inflate or deflate a trend

Controversy and Debate (cont.)