Higher Order Tries Key = Social Security Number. 441-12-1135 9 decimal digits. 10-way trie (order 10 trie). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Height <= 10.

Social Security Trie 10-way trie 100-way trie Height <= 10. Search => <= 9 branches on digits plus 1 compare. 100-way trie 441-12-1135 Height <= 6. Search => <= 5 branches on digits plus 1 compare. 10-way trie => at most 10 cache misses for a search! Up to 9 branch levels and 1 element level. 100-way => at most 6 misses.

Social Security AVL & Red-Black Red-black tree Height <= 2log2109 ~ 60. Search => <= 60 compares of 9 digit numbers. AVL tree Height <= 1.44log2109 ~ 40. Search => <= 40 compares of 9 digit numbers. Best binary tree. Height = log2109 ~ 30. With 1million entries, height of red-black tree is at most 40.

Compressed Social Security Trie Branch Node Structure #ptr 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 char# char# = character/digit used for branching. Equivalent to bit# feld of compressed binary trie. #ptr = # of nonnull pointers in the node.

Insert Insert 012345678. 012345678 Insert 015234567. 2 5 012345678 015234567 3 Null pointer fields not shown.

Insert 2 5 012345678 015234567 3 Insert 015231671.

Insert 2 5 012345678 015234567 3 1 4 6 015231671 Fall off root during search for insert key. Find any key in subtree you fall off of and find first character where this key and insert key differ. In the example, this is character/digit 2. Insert 079864231.

Insert 2 5 012345678 015234567 3 1 4 6 015231671 7 079864231 Insert 012345618.

Insert 1 7 8 2 5 012345678 015234567 3 1 4 6 015231671 079864231 7 012345618 Insert 011917352.

Insert 1 7 2 1 2 5 3 079864231 011917352 1 4 1 7 8 6 012345678 012345618 015231671 015234567

Delete 1 7 8 2 5 012345678 015234567 4 6 015231671 079864231 012345618 3 011917352 Delete 011917352.

Delete 1 7 2 2 5 3 079864231 1 4 1 7 8 6 012345678 Can back up at most one level. 012345618 015231671 015234567 Delete 012345678.

Delete 1 7 2 2 5 3 079864231 1 4 6 012345618 Can back up at most one level. 015231671 015234567 Delete 015231671.

Delete 1 7 2 2 5 3 079864231 012345618 015234567 Can back up at most one level.

Variable Length Keys 012345678 015234567 015231671 Insert 0123. Problem arises only when one key is a (proper) prefix of another.

Variable Length Keys 012345678 015234567 015231671 Insert 0123. Add a special end of key character (#) to each key to eliminate this problem.

Variable Length Keys Insert 0123. 012345678 015234567 015231671 0123 # End of key character (#) not shown.

Tries With Edge Information Add a new field (element) to each branch node. New field points to any one of the element nodes in the subtree. Use this pointer on way down to figure out skipped-over characters.

Example 2 5 012345678 015234567 3 1 4 6 015231671 0123 # Element field also useful for insert. element field shown in blue.

Etc. Expected height of an order m trie is ~logmn. Limit height to h (say 6). Level h branch nodes point to buckets that employ some other search structure for all keys in subtrie.

Etc. Switch from trie scheme to simple array when number of pairs in subtrie becomes <= s (say s = 6). Expected # of branch nodes for an order m trie when n is large and m and s are small is n/(s ln m). Sample digits from right to left (instead of from left to right) or using a pseudorandom number generator so as to reduce trie height.

Multibit Tries Variant of binary trie in which the number of bits (stride) used for branching may vary from node to node. Proposed for Internet router applications. Variable length prefixes. Longest prefix match. Limit height by choosing node strides. Root stride = 32 => height = 1. Strides of 16, 8, and 8 for levels 1, 2, and 3 => only 3 levels.

Multibit Trie Example 1 null 011 10 11 00 S =1 S =2 000 001 01 1 null 011 10 11 00 S =1 S =2 000 001 01 Length 1 prefix is stored in root. How about length 2 and begins with 0? Expand to length 3. Fixed and variable stride tries. Find strides so as to minimize space requirement.

Multibit Tries Node whose stride is s uses s bits for branching. Node has 2s children and 2s element/prefix fields. Prefixes that end at a node are stored in that node. Short prefixes are expanded to length represented by node. When root stride is 3, prefixes whose length is < 3 are expanded to length 3. P = 00* expands to P0 = 000* and P1 = 001*. If Q = 000* already exists P0 is eliminated because Q represents a longer match for any destination.