Chapter 2 Methods Lecture PowerPoint © W. W. Norton & Company, 2008

Introduction Correlation exists when change is observed in two things simultaneously.

Introduction Research methods — standard rules that social scientists follow when trying to establish a causal relationship between social elements Quantitative methods seek to obtain information about the social world that is in, or can be converted to, numeric form. Qualitative methods attempt to collect information about the social world that cannot be readily converted to numeric form.

The Basics A deductive approach to research: 1) Starts with a question 2) Develops a hypothesis 3) Makes empirical observations 4) Analyzes the data collected through observation to confirm, reject, or modify the hypothesis

The Basics An inductive approach to research: Starts with empirical observation Then works to form a theory

The Basics Causation exists when a change in one factor causes the change in the other factor. Sociologists conduct research to try to prove causation. To prove causation, correlation and time order is established and alternative explanations are ruled out.

Figure 2.2 | The Charge of Spuriousness (

The Basics A dependent variable is the outcome that a researcher is trying to explain. An independent variable is a measured factor that the researcher believes has a causal impact on the dependent variable.

The Basics Hypothesis is a proposed relationship between two variables – either null hypothesis or alternative hypothesis. Operationalization is the process by which a researcher specifies the terms and methods that will be used in a particular study.

The Basics Validity means a measure measures what it is intended to measure. Reliability refers to how likely it is that the measure will obtain the same results next time. Generalizability is the extent to which a finding can be applied to a group larger than in the study.

The Basics A population is a group being studied like Elsik students. A sample is a subset of the population from which data is collected; a census is a sample that attempts to estimate the size of the entire population.

The Basics If marbles of two colors are mixed well in the large jar, the fastest way to know their ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller one and count them

The Basics Feminist methodology: Sandra Harding Treats women’s experiences as legitimate empirical and theoretical resources Promotes social science that may bring about policy change to help women Is as conscious of the role of the researcher as that of the subject(s) being studied.