Ch. 5: Social Interaction, Groups & Social Structure

Social Interaction and Reality Social interaction refers to the ways in which people respond to one another Social structure refers to the way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships Reality is shaped by perceptions, evaluations, and definitions Nature of social interaction and what constitutes reality varies across cultures Ability to define social reality reflects group’s power within a society

Status Status: any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society Person can hold more than one at same time Ascribed and Achieved Status Ascribed status: status one is born with Achieved status: status one earns Master Status Status that dominates other statuses and determines a person’s general position in society In US, ascribed statuses of race and gender can function as master statuses

Social Roles What Are Social Roles? Role Conflict Role Strain Social role: set of expectations for people who occupy a given status Role Conflict When incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by same person Role Strain Difficulties that arise when same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations

Social Roles Role Exit Process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s identity to establish a new role Ebaugh’s four stages: Doubt Search for alternatives Action or departure stage Creation of a new identity

Groups Group: any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact on a regular basis Primary and Secondary Groups Primary group: small group with intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation Secondary group: formal, impersonal groups with little social intimacy or mutual understanding 6

Groups In-Groups and Out-Groups In-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they belong Out-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they do not belong Conflict between in-groups and out-groups can turn violent on a personal as well as political level 7

Social Networks Social network: series of social relationships that links a person directly to others, and through them indirectly to still more people Social networks one of five basic elements of social structure Research indicates that in person and online not everyone participates equally in social networks

Social Institutions Social institution: organized pattern of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs Functionalist Perspective Five major tasks: Replacing personnel Teaching new recruits Producing and distributing goods and services Preserving order Providing and maintaining a sense of purpose

Social Institutions Conflict Perspective Major institutions help maintain privileges of most powerful individuals and groups within society Social institutions such as education have inherently conservative natures Social institutions operate in gendered and racist environments

Social Institutions Interactionist Perspective Social institutions affect everyday behavior Social behavior conditioned by roles and statuses we accept

Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies Formal organization: group designed for special purpose and structured for maximum efficiency In our society, formal organizations fulfill enormous variety of personal and societal needs Ascribed statuses can influence how we see ourselves within formal organizations 12

Characteristics of a Bureaucracy Bureaucracy: component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency Ideal type: a construct or model for evaluating specific cases (Weber) Weber emphasized basic similarity of structure and process found in dissimilar enterprises of religion, government, education, and business 13

Characteristics of a Bureaucracy Characteristics of Weber’s ideal bureaucracy: Division of labor Hierarchy of authority Written rules and regulations Impersonality Employment based on technical qualifications 14

Characteristics of a Bureaucracy With a division of labor, specialized experts perform specific tasks Fragmentation of work can remove connection workers have to overall objective of the bureaucracy Alienation: condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding society Trained incapacity: workers become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems 15

Characteristics of a Bureaucracy Impersonality is a key characteristic Bureaucratic norms dictate that officials perform duties without personal consideration to people as individuals A hierarchy of authority means each position is under supervision Written rules and regulations ensure uniform performance of every task Provide continuity Goal displacement: when rules and regulations overshadow larger goals of organization and become dysfunctional 16

Characteristics of a Bureaucracy Bureaucratization as a Process Bureaucratization: process by which group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic Can take place within small group settings Oligarchy: Rule by a Few Iron law of oligarchy: even a democratic organization eventually develops into a bureaucracy ruled by a few 17

Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach Human societies undergo process of change characterized by dominant pattern known as sociocultural evolution Level of technology critical Technology: “cultural information about the ways in which the material resources of the environment may be used to satisfy human needs and desires” (Nolan and Lenski 2009:357)

Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach Preindustrial Societies Hunting-and-gathering society: people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available Horticultural societies: people plant seeds and crops Agrarian societies: people are primarily engaged in production of food; more specialized than horticultural society

Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach Industrial Societies Societies that depend on mechanization to produce its goods and services People depend on mechanization to produce goods and services People rely on inventions and energy sources People move away from family as a self-sufficient production unit

Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach Postindustrial and Postmodern Societies Postindustrial society: economic system engaged primarily in processing and controlling information Postmodern society: technologically sophisticated society preoccupied with consumer goods and media images