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The research process Stage 1: Definition of the problem Stage 2: Obtaining the information Stage 3: Analysing and interpreting the data Stage 4: Communicating the results

The research process STAGE 1: DEFINING THE PROBLEM Deciding on the research topic Conducting a literature review Specify a research question Formulating a hypothesis Operationalizing concepts

The research process STAGE 2: Obtaining the information Ethics Research design Sampling Data collection STAGE 3: Analysing and interpreting the information Describing and interpreting quantitative data Analyses and interpretation of qualitative data

The research process STAGE 4: Communicating the results Report

Writing and evaluation research reports

Outcomes The functions of a research report The characteristics of a research report The difference between the various types of research reports The need for evaluating research reports Critically evaluating a research report

Research report Functions communicates scientific data and ideas to an audience contributes to the general body of scientific knowledge stimulates and directs further inquiry Report your research as accurately as possible The research report is not only a record of the research process, but also a summary of what you found

Research report 4. In quantitative research, you need to provide sufficient info so that your research can be replicated. In your report, you argue for your specific point of view or hypothesis The reports is a concrete way of putting forward arguments and reasons (empirical and theoretical) in support of a specific finding Research has to comply with scientific norms such as reliability, validity and objectivity

Research report Types of reports Written assignments Presentation Journal articles Commissioned research The dissertation and the thesis Newspaper reports

Research report Written assignments Research at an elementary level The assignment takes on the form of a research report

Research report Presentation An oral presentation before an audience at a seminar or conference Because of limited time, your reports need to be highly focused and you need to prioritise what info to include

Research report Presentation Mostly an oral presentation Focus mostly on your findings and your conclusions. Usually present findings in graphics formats Followed by a question and answer session

Research report Journal articles When you publish in a journal, length is limited Data is usually not included Well written and organised - info has to be accurate, easy to find, relevant and comprehensive Write according to the format laid down by the editor Your target audience will be your peers

Research report Commissioned research Deals with applied research where a practical problem needs to be resolved – for resolving problems in the workplace When an organisation specifically hired you to undertake research

Research report Commissioned research Usually in-house document intended for management Excludes details re sampling, methodology and the literature review Give an executive summary which contains the key findings and recommendations of your research

Research report Dissertation and thesis Post-graduate studies

Research report Dissertation and thesis As much detail as possible in the report The precise nature of the research process (eg literature survey) The research design (eg sampling, methods used for data collection) The method of interpretation used The format of the report itself Thesis has a higher level of complexity than a dissertation.

Research report Newspaper reports Research projects are made known to the general public through newspaper reports. You need to provide the most basic facts, and the emphasis is on your research finding, what they mean and how they can be applied Avoid using jargon (technical language)

Research report Styles of writing a report for newspaper Inverted pyramid Narrative Wall Street Journal Champagne glass Anecdote or nut graph Stack of blocks

Research report Styles of writing a report for newspaper Inverted pyramid – presents the most important news first Narrative – simply telling the story with a beginning, a middle and an end Wall street journal – focus on an individual or institution and then move on to the more important facts

Research report Styles of writing a report for newspaper Champagne glass – most nb facts are given at the beginning, but is followed by a narrative style with a beginning, middle and end Anecdote and nut graph – Begin your report with a description or anecdote, no hard facts are provided. The nut graph (refers to the hard facts) follows, then the essential facts are reported Stack of blocks – several distinct and separate sections with a strong ending

Organisation of a Research report All reports should comply with basic norms of social science research First step is to identify your intended audience The type of report you decide to use depends on your target audience This influences the format, style and organisation of you report

Research report There are four distinct stages to the research process (areas that should be included in your report) Stage 1 – defining the problem Stage 2 – obtaining the information Stage 3 – analysing and interpreting the information Stage 4 – making known the results

Stage 1 – defining the problem The research problem The description of the nature of the problem is very nb, the core concepts have to be clearly defined The literature review Summarises the work already done in your field of study You need to report accurately on the main points (accuracy) It should relate directly to the study in hand (relevance)

Stage 2 – obtaining the info Data gathering This relates to the sample you used for your research Sample size – this should include how you selected your sample Sample characteristics – includes a description of the sample (demographics or other characteristics)

Stage 2 – obtaining the info 2. Method Explain how you undertook the research Refer to things such as data collection and the measuring instrument that you used Reliability and validity In a dissertation or thesis you need to discuss extensively In a journal article, you can cover this in a sentence or two

Stage 3 – analysing and interpreting the info Results This relates to your research findings Three things are important Illustrating your findings – tables, figures and graphs Description of your analysis – the statistical method you used (in quantitative research) Description of findings – Does your findings answer your research question

Stage 3 – analysing and interpreting the info Interpretation and discussion Your report should always include an interpretation and discussion of what you found in your research Interpretation is an analytical process in which you examine your research in order to develop a conceptual understanding of it Discussion provides a deeper understanding of the data gathered in relation to the supporting theory, the research problem, the hypothesis or the research question

Stage 3 – analysing and interpreting the info Four elements that should feature in your discussion Summarise the main findings Discuss the implications of your interpretations Report limitations and practical problems that influence the results in any way. Provide suggestions for future research

Stage 4 – making known the results The introduction State the problem - provide some background about the nature of the research problem Explain the theoretical framework that you used to explain your findings Justify the research – what the value of the research is Indicate the aim of the research – a statement of the hypothesis or research question(s)

Stage 4 – making known the results The conclusion Include a brief summary of your essential findings You can include your recommendations in your conclusion

Stage 4 – making known the results The abstract A short summary in which you highlight the key points in your research work If your research report is intended for publication in an academic journal

Basic components of a research report Abstract Introduction Literature review Method Sampling procedure Data collection Results Discussion Interpretation Conclusion

Research report Technicalities Good English Use a formal style of writing Written in the third person The format of your research report depends on the purpose of your report and the conventions of the journal you are writing for

Research report Characteristics of good scientific writing Write systematically – organise your report Write clearly – avoid ambiguities Write precisely – use clearly defined words Write directly and simply – use simple terms Write concisely – write in a focused manner Parsimonious – use no more than is strictly needed

Research report 6. Evaluating a report p279 Definition of the problem Obtaining the information Analysing and interpreting the information Technicalities