Semantics Seven kinds of speech acts Presented by : Citra Fitria A Rimawarni Pradina

9.3.4 Expressive utterances 188 9.3.5 Directive utterances 189 9.3.6 Commissive utterances 192 9.3.7 Four speech acts compared 194 9.3.8 Phatic utterances 194

Expressive utterances 20 I acknowledge that I didn’t do what I should have done. 21 We admit that we were mistaken. 22 I apologize for having disturbed you. An expressive utterance springs from the previous actions—or failure to act—of the speaker, or perhaps the present result of those actions or failures. Expressive utterances are thus retrospective and speaker-involved. The most common expressive verbs (in this sense of ‘expres- sive’) are: acknowledge, admit, confess deny apologize

Directive utterances Directive utterances are those in which the speaker tries to get the addressee to perform some act or refrain from performing an act. Thus a directive utterance has the pronoun you as actor, whether that word is actually present in the utterance or not: 23 (You) wait here. 24 Turn to page 164. Don’t (any of you) miss this opportunity to save.

A directive utterance is prospective; one cannot tell other people to do something in the past. Like other kinds of utterances, a directive utterance presupposes certain conditions in the addressee and in the context of situation. “Close the door” is vapid if the only door in the vicinity is already closed. When the utterance can be carried out, the utterance is felicitous, and if not, it is infelicitous.

Three kinds of directive utterances can be recognized: commands, requests and suggestions. 26a I (here by) order you to appear in court next Monday at 10 a.m. 26b You must appear in court next Monday at 10 a.m. 27a I’m telling you not to waste your time on that. 27b Don’t waste your time on that. Commands can be produced with various degrees of explicitness. Sentences 26a and 27a are more explicit than 26b and 27b but the b utterances are less formal, therefore more usual.

28 Passengers are required to keep seat belts fastened when the sign is lit. Smoking is not permitted in the lavatories. These utterances are commands, and fairly explicit ones, because they contain such predicates as require and permit. 30 The boss demands that these letters (should) go out today.

A request is an expression of what the speaker wants the addressee to do or refrain from doing. A request does not assume the speaker’s control over the person addressed. Illustrations appear in sentences 28–30 (the last a reported request). 31 I appeal to you to help as much as you can. 32 We beg you to stay out of the way. 33 The receptionist asked the people in the waiting room not to smoke there.

Suggestions are the utterances we make to other persons to give our opinions as to what they should or should not do. 34 I advise you to be prompt; I warn you not to be late. 35 We suggest you (should) pay more attention to what you’re doing.

Commissive utterances Speech acts that commit a speaker to a course of action are called commissive utterances. These include promises, pledges, threats and vows. Commissive verbs are illustrated by agree, ask, offer, refuse, swear, all with following infinitives. They are prospective and concerned with the speaker’s commitment to future action. 36 I promise to be on time. 37 We volunteer to put up the decorations for the dance.

A commissive predicate is one that can be used to commit oneself (or refuse to commit oneself) to some future action. The subject of the sentence is therefore most likely to be I or we, as in 36 and 37. Further, the verb must be in the present tense and there is some addressee, whether the utterance shows it or not, since the speaker must be making a commitment to somebody. In contrast, 38 and 39 below, with other kinds of subjects or a different tense, are not commitments but reports of commitments. 38 Ernest promised us to be on time. 39 They volunteered to put up the decorations for the dance.

In a commissive utterance the subject is I or we, as indicated above In a commissive utterance the subject is I or we, as indicated above. Felicity conditions: the speaker is capable of the act and intends to perform it; the addressee has faith in the speaker’s intention.

Four speech acts compared The last four speech acts, and the predicates that occur in them, are alike in being concerned with some action. They differ from one another as to whether the act has purportedly already taken place (retrospective) or is yet to occur (prospective), and whether the speaker or the addressee is the agent of the act. verdictive retrospective addressee-involved expressive retrospective speaker-involved directive prospective addressee-involved commissive prospective speaker-involved

Phatic utterances Questions like “How are you?,” “How’re you doing?” are not really meant to get information. We don’t assume that statements such as “I’m glad to meet you” or “So nice to see you again” are necessarily expressions of deep feeling on the part of the speaker. The purpose of utterances like these, phatic utterances, is to establish rapport between members of the same society. Phatic utterances include greetings, farewells, such as “Thank you,” “You’re welcome,” “Excuse me” when these are not really verdictive or expressive. They also include all sorts of comments on the weather, asking about one’s health. Stereotyped phrases are common for conveying good wishes to someone starting to eat a meal, beginning a voyage, undertaking a new venture, or celebrating a personal or social holiday.

Conclusion Utterances can be classified according to the general purpose of the speaker, which, when communication is successful, is also the addressee’s interpretation.