Chapter 9 Observation Studies This chapter provides coverage on conducting observation studies.

Learning Objectives Understand . . . when observation studies are most useful distinctions between monitoring nonbehavioral and behavioral activities strengths of the observation approach in research design weaknesses of the observation approach in research design

Learning Objectives Understand . . . three perspectives from which the observer-participant relationship may be viewed various designs of observation studies

Exhibit 9-1 Observation and the Research Process Exhibit 9-1 depicts the use of observation in the research process.

Exhibit 9-2 Selecting the Data Collection Method

Exhibit 9-3 Selecting an Observation Data Collection Approach Exhibit 9-3 illustrates the selection of an observation data collection approach. This is discussed further on the following slide.

Research Design Task Details Who? What? Where? (event or time) How? The data collection plan specifies the details of the task. Who? The plan must specify what qualifies a person to participate as a subject of the observation. It must also assign responsibilities on the research side. What? The characteristics of the observation must be set as sampling elements and units of analysis. This is achieved when event-time dimension and “act” terms are defined. In event sampling, the researcher selects certain elements, behavioral acts, or conditions to record that answer the investigative questions. In time sampling, the researcher must choose among a time-point sample, continuous real-time measurement, or a time-interval sample. For a time-point sample, recording occurs at fixed points for a specified length. Time-interval sampling records every behavior in real time but counts the behavior only once during the interval. What constitutes an “act” depends on the study. For instance, acts could include a single expressed thought, a physical movement, a facial expression, or a motor skill. When? When specifies whether the time of the study is important, and if so, what time period will be used. How? Will the data be observed directly? How will various situations be handled? How will data be recorded? Where does the act take place? How? When?

Exhibit 9-6 Content of Observation Factual Inferential Introduction/identification of salesperson and customer. Credibility of salesperson. Qualified status of customer. Time and day of week. Convenience for the customer. Welcoming attitude of the customer Product presented. Customer interest in product. Selling points presented per product. Customer acceptance of selling points of product. Number of customer objections raised per product. Customer concerns about features and benefits. Salesperson’s rebuttal of objection. Effectiveness of salesperson’s rebuttal attempts. Salesperson’s attempt to restore controls. Effectiveness of salesperson’s control attempt. Consequences for customer who prefers interaction. Length of interview. Customer’s/salesperson’s degree of enthusiasm for the interview. Environmental factors interfering with the interview. Level of distraction for the customer. Customer purchase decision. General evaluation of sale presentation skill.

Data Collection Watching Listening Touching Smelling Reading Besides collecting data visually, observation involves listening, reading, smelling, and touching. Exhibit 9-2 describes the conditions under which observation is appropriate and this exhibit is provided on the following slide.

Using Observation Systematic planning Properly controlled Consistently dependable Simple observation is unstructured and not standardized. Systematic observation is structured and uses standardized procedures to observe participants or objects. Observation may be the primary methodology used to answer a research question when it is systematically planned and executed, uses proper controls, and provides a consistently dependable (reliable) and accurate and authoritative (valid) account of what happened. Accurate account of events

Observation Classification Behavioral Nonverbal Linguistic Extralinguistic Spatial Nonbehavioral Physical condition analysis Process analysis Activity analysis Record analysis Observation includes the full range of monitoring behavioral and nonbehavioral activities and conditions. These can be classified as behavioral and nonbehavioral observations. Nonverbal observation is the most prevalent and refers to recording physical actions or movements of participants. These behaviors can be measured with the human eye and with several mechanical or digital devices. These devices are discussed on the following slide. Linguistic observation is the observation of human verbal behavior during conversation, presentation, or interaction. Extralinguistic observation is the recording of vocal, temporal, interaction, and verbal stylistic behaviors of human participants. It is discussed further on slide 10-12. Spatial observation is the recording of how humans physically relate to one another. Nonbehavioral observation is the observation of the effects or traces of prior actions or of nonhuman activity. Physical condition analysis is the recording of observations of current conditions resulting from prior decisions. Process (activity) analysis is observation by a time study of stages in a process, evaluated on both effectiveness and efficiency. Record analysis is the extraction of data from current or historical records. Data mining is a type of record analysis, which is discussed further in the slide show.

Exhibit 9-3 Selecting an Observation Data Collection Approach

Behavioral Observation “We noticed people scraping the toppings off our pizza crusts. We thought at first there was something wrong, but they said, ‘We love it, we just don’t eat the crust anymore.” Tom Santor, Donatos Pizza Donatos Pizza discovered something about consumer preferences from simple observation of human behavior.

Systematic Observation Standardized procedures Structured Trained observers Systematic Encoding observation information Recording schedules Systematic studies employ standardized procedures, trained observers, schedules for recording, and other devices for the observer that reflect the scientific procedures of other primary data methods.

Exhibit 9-5 Flowchart for Checklist Design

Mechanical/ Digital Behavioral Observation Video camera Pupilometer Audio recorder Devices Eye camera Tachistoscope Researchers can use their eyes to record behavioral observations but some things cannot be adequately observed with the human eye. Several mechanical devices are used to record behavioral observations. The most commonly used devices are the video camera and audio recorder. The galvanometer is a device that measures excitement, arousal, fear, or heightened physiological response to stimuli. It does this by measuring electrical activity in the participant’s skin. They are most used in advertising research. The eye camera and pupilometer are device that attach to a person’s forehead. When a participant is shown various stimuli, the researcher can measure the movement of the eye and the dilation of the pupil in the eye. For example, during an episode of a television program, one can match the eye movement precisely with what one is watching on the screen. The tachistoscope is a timed shutter device that exposes a participant to some stimulus for a controlled period of time. Historically, it has been used to substantiate the effects of subliminal advertising. Galvanometer

Body Measurement System SizeUSA Body Measurement System SizeUSA developed a three-dimensional scaling system for the human body. It is being used to take body measurements that will be used in product design for clothing, cars, airline seats, and more.

Portable People Meters Nielsen Media Research collects some of its television viewer data with electronic devices labeled people meters. The people meter measures the tuning state of the TV set, what channel is being tuned, and who is watching. Nielsen has been testing a Portable People Meter, which is shown in the slide. Participants carry the meter wherever they go. The meter records signals from media companies. The data transferred back to Nielsen when the participant returns home and docks the device.

Observer-Participant Relationship Direct or indirect observation Presence is known or unknown Communication with a participant presents a clear opportunity for interviewer bias. The problem is less pronounced with observation but is still real. The relationship between observer and participant may be viewed from three perspectives: Whether the observation is direct or indirect Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to the participant, and What role the observer plays in the events or effects of events recorded. Direct observation occurs when the observer is physically present and personally monitors what takes place. Indirect observation occurs when the recording is done by mechanical, photographic, or electronic means. When the observer is known, there is a risk of atypical activity by the participant. Concealment shields the observer from the participant to avoid error caused by the observer’s presence. A modified approach involves partial concealment. The presence of the observer is not concealed, but the objectives are. The third issue is whether the observer should participate in the situation while observing. Mystery shopping is an example of observer-participation. Observer involved or not involved in events

Extralinguistic Observation Vocal Temporal Interaction Linguistic observation is the observation of human verbal behavior during conversation, presentation, or interaction. Extralinguistic observation, the focus of this slide, is the recording of vocal, temporal, interaction, and verbal stylistic behaviors of human participants. Vocal behaviors include pitch, loudness, and timbre. Temporal behaviors include the rate of speaking, duration of utterance, and rhythm. Interaction includes the tendencies to interrupt, dominate, or inhibit. Verbal stylistic behaviors include vocabulary and pronunciation peculiarities, dialect, and characteristic expressions. Ronald Reagan was lauded for his command of extralinguistic behavior. Verbal Stylistic

Desired Characteristics for Observers Concentration Detail-oriented Unobtrusive There are a few general guidelines for the qualification and selection of observers. Observers should have the ability to function in a setting full of distractions (concentration). They should have the ability to remember details of an experience (detail-oriented). They should have the ability to blend with the setting and not be distinctive (unobtrusive). Finally, observers should have the ability to extract the most from an observation study (experience level). For studies using direct observation with a simple checklist, prior experience is less important. Experience level

Errors Introduced by Observers Halo Effect Observer Drift Inexperience can be an advantage if there is a risk that experienced observers may have preset convictions about the topic or if prior observations will influence what is perceived in a current observation. This is called the halo effect. Observers can also introduce error when fatigued, which can result in observer drift. Observer drift is error caused by decay in consistency and accuracy on recorded observations over time, affecting categorization.

Evaluation of Behavioral Observation Strengths Securing information that is otherwise unavailable Avoiding participant filtering/ forgetting Securing environmental context Optimizing naturalness Reducing obtrusiveness Weaknesses Enduring long periods Incurring higher expenses Having lower reliability of inferences Quantifying data Keeping large records Being limited on knowledge of cognitive processes This slide lists the strengths and limitations of observation as a data collection method. Observation is the only method available for gathering certain types of information. Another advantage is that it can capture the whole event as it occurs in its natural environment. Observation participants seem to accept an observational intrusion better than they respond to the intrusion of survey takers. Further, some observation studies are concealed A key limitation of observation is that it records what, where, who, and how, but cannot record why people behave as they do. Observation is slow and expensive. Observation may be factual or inferential. It is most reliable when it is based on fact. Exhibit 9-4, shown on the next slide, shows how we can separate the factual and inferential component of a salesperson’s presentation.

Exhibit 9-3 Selecting an Observation Data Collection Approach

Wal-Mart Implements Use of RFID labels Radio Frequency Identification tags tracks various information about a product. For instance, Wal-Mart is using the technology to track inventory, location of customers, and when a product is actually used. This is an example of nonbehavioral observation.

Key Terms Observation Concealment Event sampling Direct Halo effect Extralinguistic Indirect Linguistic Nonverbal Participant Simple Spatial systematic

Key Terms Observation checklist Observer drift Physical condition analysis Physical trace Process (activity) analysis Reactivity response Record analysis Spatial Relationships Time sampling Unobtrusive measures