To what extent was Scotland a unified country by 1034 AD? Geographical/political unity Cultural unity – esp. linguistic Religious/spiritual unity

Key figures in the macAlpin dynasty Kenneth macAlpin – established the macAlpin dynasty Donald II – first recorded “King of Alba” Constantine II – “the real father of the nation” (Alex Woolf) Malcolm II – extended control of Alba over Strathclyde and the Lothians

Some key places…. Monasteries/religious centres Political centres Candida Casa (Whithorn, in Galloway) – cult of St Ninian and first known Christian site in Scotland Iona – centre for Columban Christianity, in former Kingdom of Dal Riada Lindisfarne – cult of St Cuthbert, chief saint of Northumbria Political centres Al Clud – Dumbarton Rock, capital of British Kingdom of Strathclyde until 870 Bernicia – northern part of the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria Scone – ceremonial centre of the new Gaelic-speaking Kingdom of Alba

Political landscape c.900 Northumbria – the southern part of Northumbria (Deira) fell under the control of Danish Vikings, who established a new kingdom at Jorvik (York). The northern part of Northumbria (Bernicia) remained under Anglian control but was reduced to the status of an earldom Danish Vikings established the Danelaw in eastern England The Anglo-Saxon Kings of Wessex resisted the Viking invasions and extended their power north, over Mercia and the Danelaw and into Northumbria. This brought them into conflict with the Kings of Alba, who also claimed territory in Northumbria Blue = Celtic; pink = Anglo-Saxon; light brown = Danish Vikings; darker brown = Norwegian Vikings

Political landscape c.900 Caithness, Sutherland and the Northern and Western Isles had fallen under the control of Norwegian Vikings – Earldom of Orkney The Britons had abandoned Dumbarton Rock and moved their capital inland to Govan. Strathclyde fell to some degree under Norse influence (hogsback tombs!) and also saw increasing Gaelicisation, but still retained some degree of independence A new Gaelic-speaking kingdom had emerged in the north – Alba. The power of its kings was strongest in the south of the kingdom Moray was ruled by powerful mormaers who, although nominally subject to the Kings of Alba, had a great deal of independence

1. Extent of political unification by 1034 In 1018, Malcolm II placed his son Duncan on the throne of Strathclyde Malcolm’s victory over the Northumbrians at the Battle of Carham 1018 saw Alba’s southern border extended to the Tweed However… Moray did not come under the direct control of the Kings of Alba until the early 12th century Galloway was ruled by the Gall Gaedhil Lords of Galloway The far west – including Argyll and the Hebrides – were ruled by lords of the Gall Gaedhil who sometimes styled themselves Kings of the Isles The far north – including Orkney, Caithness and Sutherland - was ruled by the Norse Earls of Orkney

2. Cultural unity - spread of the Gaelic language By the mid-11th century, Gaelic was the dominant language in much of Scotland. Pictish appears to have died out altogether. Gaelic was widely spoken in Alba, Moray and Galloway. It was taking hold in the former British Kingdom of Strathclyde and may already have reasserted itself as the dominant language in parts of the Hebrides However… Cumbric (a dialect of Old Welsh) was still spoken in parts of Strathclyde Old English remained the dominant language in the Lothians and the southeast. It was never replaced by Gaelic and evolved into modern Lowland Scots Old Norse (Norn) still dominated the Northern Isles, Caithness and most of the Hebrides. Norn was still spoken by some inhabitants of the Northern Isles until the 18th century

3. Christianity – a unifying force By 1034, all the peoples of Northern Britain were Christian Even the Vikings had been converted to Christianity. Earl Thorfinn of Orkney was a committed Christian and went on pilgrimage to Rome Latin was the language of the Church and of learning, and was used by the educated classes throughout Scotland All the peoples of Scotland looked to the Pope in Rome as the ultimate spiritual authority – they were part of the catholic (universal) church of medieval Europe

Left – Book of Kells, produced in a Columban monastery (possibly Iona) Right – Lindisfarne Gospels, from Northumbria Note the similarities! A shared faith, a shared language/alphabet and shared learning meant that Christianity was a force for unity in a Northern Britain which was otherwise still culturally and politically divided….

To what extent had Scotland’s divided kingdoms become united by 1034