Vietnam 1954-1964

Timeline to War: 1956: Elections not held or supported by U.S., who worked to solidify the border and support the Diem regime in the south. Eisenhower cited the “Domino Theory” as a rationale for not having elections (he feared that Ho Chi Minh would win) Communists were notorious for rigging “free” elections Uncle Ho was a popular leader, even among those that did not support Communism.

Relevant Vocabulary: National Liberation Front: The “Vietcong.” Communist movement in S. Vietnam; guerrilla fighters loyal to Ho Chi Minh. NVA: North Vietnamese Army (loyal to Ho Chi Minh). ARVN: Army of the Republic of Vietnam (S. Vietnam) allied w/ the U.S.

U.S. Military Involvement Begins Repressive dictatorial rule by Diem Diem’s family held all the power - Nepotism Wealth was hoarded by the elite Buddhist majority persecuted Torture, lack of political freedom prevailed Very limited support The U.S. aided Diem’s government Ike sent financial and military aid 675 U.S. Army advisors sent by 1960. Realizing he would Diem backs out of elections.

US support US aid and support for Diem actually undermined his rule. How? What would be the best way for Diem to counter US ‘help’?

Diem’s weaknesses Corruption Weakness of the South Vietnamese army A serious lack of reform The strategic hamlets campaign to control the peasants was a failure due to corruption and VC infiltration.

Buddhist Protests against Diem’s Government Self-Emolation by a Buddhist Monk named Thich Quang Duc. 11th June 1963

Relevant Vocabulary: Escalation: An increase in the use of armaments; increase in the scope of a conflict. Credibility Gap: The gap between reality and what politicians and governments say about reality. Or, the gap between what the U.S. was saying about Vietnam and what was actually happening there.

US ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge and President Diem

Timeline to War: 1956-63: Both Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy increased “advisors” to S. Vietnam.

Timeline to War: Kennedy increased levels to about 16,000. Kennedy was ambiguous about U.S. intentions in Vietnam.

Assassinations! 1963: JFK ‘supported’ a Vietnamese military coup d’etat – against Diem. Diem and his brother were assassinated (Nov. 2) Kennedy’s advisors were clearly fighting a covert war by 1963. MacNamara has suggested that he believes Kennedy would have pulled the U.S. out, but evidence in inconclusive. JFK realizes Diem is a liability; offers quiet support to a Vietnamese military coup d’etat. The coup results in the brutal murders of Diem and his brother The Vietnamese generals overthrow one another. A relatively stable, but tyrannical government emerges. It is little better than Diem’s.

Assassinations! Kennedy was assassinated just weeks later (Nov. 22) Kennedy’s advisors were clearly fighting a covert war by 1963. MacNamara has suggested that he believes Kennedy would have pulled the U.S. out, but evidence in inconclusive. JFK realizes Diem is a liability; offers quiet support to a Vietnamese military coup d’etat. The coup results in the brutal murders of Diem and his brother The Vietnamese generals overthrow one another. A relatively stable, but tyrannical government emerges. It is little better than Diem’s. The Vice-President, Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ), was sworn into office.

Vietnam, 1963 Vice President Johnson had toured South Vietnam in 1961. He is seen here meeting with Diem. Diem had been a stubborn ruler, and with his death in late 1963 Johnson had an opportunity to pursue his own plans for Vietnam. Diem would not approve of a massive incursion of U.S. troops and was secretly negotiating with the North for a peace. His death removed a key obstacle in escalating the war.

Vietnam, 1963 The assassination of Kennedy placed LBJ in power immediately, and he inherited a Vietnam policy that was in shambles with the killing of Diem only weeks earlier. South Vietnam was in chaos due to the military coup. Perhaps 40% of southern Vietnamese were supporters of Ho Chi Minh in 1963. The Americans thus far had not won over the hearts and minds of the indigenous population. The Viet Cong were growing in popularity, and ARVN soldiers (who were conscripts) were deserting.

LBJ To any outside observer, the events of late 1963 were clear warning signs that the U.S. nation-building effort was failing. Yet the military brass never acknowledged this, and neither did LBJ. Their hawkish advice to LBJ ignored CIA warnings that Vietnam might be un-winnable. LBJ surrounded by war advisors. Their advice: escalate the war.

LBJ Johnson’s advisors urged him to step up the bombing of North Vietnam and increase the ground war – and that is what he wanted to hear. LBJ, a hawk, did not like dovish counsel from his advisors. Unlike JFK, LBJ was not interested in any exit strategies. To LBJ, Vietnam was a commitment, he would honor it, and he felt the world’s strongest superpower could build South Vietnam.

Vietnam, 1964 LBJ continued JFK’s Operation Ranch Hand, involving spraying defoliant over the countryside to reduce Viet Cong hiding cover. Agent Orange was one of the defoliants. LBJ continued Operation Sunrise, the Strategic Hamlet program begun under JFK. By early 1964 there were more than 11,000 “strategic hamlets” constructed. LBJ decided to expand the air war against North Vietnam, but not excessively. LBJ ignored CIA evidence that bombing attacks would have little overall effect. Johnson stepped up the war, yet Vietnam policy continued to drift in the early months of his administration. By the summer of ’64, there were roughly 20,000 advisors in Vietnam. Operation Ranch Hand was highly unpopular among Vietnamese peasants, as it damaged their crops, livestock, and livelihood and caused serious health problems.

Vietnam, 1964 The American problem was the same the French had encountered. This brought a tough question: How do you bomb an indigenous peasant population, distributed throughout the rural countryside, into compliance? Who do you target? The Americans had adopted a conventional warfare strategy, just as the French had done, and like the French, the Americans were already losing.

Vietnam, 1964 1964 was an election year, and the Goldwater Republicans felt they could make gains on the Democrat’s disorganized foreign policy. The Republicans, trying to out-hawk the Democrats, called for even more military actions. LBJ felt he had to show toughness because he feared being labeled “soft” on communism. LBJ felt needed to take a bold step. To justify escalating the war, LBJ took advantage of a small naval incident in August 1964 at the Gulf of Tonkin. Barry Goldwater was even more hawkish than LBJ. LBJ feared being labeled soft on communism and this was an election year.

The Gulf of Tonkin incident According to the White House, on August 2nd, 1964, the destroyer USS Maddox was attacked by North Korean torpedo boats whilst in International waters. The White House claimed a second attack took place on August 4th. Johnson went on national TV and declared that the U.S. would fight “to defend itself.”

The Gulf of Tonkin incident, August 1964 This photo was reportedly taken on August 2, 1964 and is said to depict three North Vietnamese patrol boats closing in on the USS Maddox, a destroyer that the U.S. claimed was in international waters. The Pentagon claimed that more than 20 torpedoes were fired at U.S. warships over a series of two attacks, but none found their mark and the attacking ships were damaged, with one destroyed. Johnson used this attack to secure the Gulf of Tonkin resolution. Subsequent evidence suggests the U.S. characterization was inaccurate.

What actually happened in the Gulf of Tonkin?

The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, August 1964 The next morning, LBJ pressured Congress to give the President more war-making powers – and Congress overwhelmingly approved the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. This resolution allowed Johnson to militarily assist any Southeast Asian country whose government was endangered by “communist aggression.” The resolution provided Johnson’s legal justification for dramatically escalating the Vietnam War. Now he could do as he pleased.

Vietnam, 1964 By 1964, the Americans had repeated many of the same errors the French had committed. What would follow would be a series of failed puppet governments in South Vietnam, all propped up by the Americans. None would be popular among the Vietnamese people. Nguyễn Khánh 1964-65 Nguyễn Văn Thiệu 1965-75