Chapter 11: Errors of Expression *Errors of perspective happen before we address an issue *Errors of procedure happen while we address an issue *Errors of Expression: Errors that occur in expressing our views to others, orally or in writing -contradiction -arguing in a circle -meaningless statement -mistaken authority -false analogy -irrational appeal Chapter 11: Errors of Expression Beyond Feelings

Contradiction A person says one thing now and the opposite later *Principle of Contradiction: no statement can be both true and false at the same time in the same way --contradiction occurs when a person says one thing now and the opposite later *To overcome contradiction: -monitor what you say and WRITE -look for inconsistencies and eliminate them

Arguing in a Circle Attempting to prove a statement by repeating it in a different form *Arguing in a circle: attempting to prove a statement by repeating it in a different form *To detect circularity: -make sure that the evidence you offer in support of your view is not merely a restatement of the view in different words

Meaningless Statement Explanation containing reasons that make no sense *Meaningless statement: explanation containing reasons that make no sense *To detect meaningless statements: -always ask yourself, “am I making sense?”

Mistaken Authority Ascribing authority to someone who does not possess it *Mistaken Authority: Ascribing authority to someone who does not possess it --common in the media with celebrities --also common when an expert in one field acts as though they are an expert in another field *To avoid this error: --check to be sure that your experts are in fact, experts in the field they say

False Analogy The similarities claimed in an analogy are not real Analogy: attempt to explain something relatively unfamiliar by referring to something different but more familiar **False Analogy: the similarities claimed in an analogy are not real -comparing apples with oranges To avoid a false analogy: -test to make sure similarities are real and reasonable -no important dissimilarities exist

Irrational Appeal Emotion Tradition Moderation Authority Common Belief Encourages people to accept ideas for some reason other than reasonableness Emotion Tradition Moderation Authority Common Belief Tolerance Irrational Appeal: encourages people to accept ideas for some reason other than reasonableness -Rational Appeal to Emotion: not only stimulates feelings but also demonstrates their appropriateness to the ideas being presented -Irrational Appeal to Emotion: use feelings as a substitute for thought **stimulates feelings of fear, resentment, guilt, pity w/o demonstrating their appropriateness -Rational Appeal to Tradition: tells people how old/revered the tradition is & also shows that it deserves our endorsement -Irrational Appeal to Tradition: urges maintaining the tradition merely b/c we’ve always done so -Rational Appeal to Moderation: includes an explanation of why the more moderate idea or action is preferable to less moderate options -Irrational Appeal to Moderation: offered on the erroneous presumption that moderation is always preferable -Rational Appeal to Authority: states what one or more authorities say and provides support -Irrational Appeal to Authority: states what one or more authorities say and does not provide support -Rational Appeal to Common Belief: states that most people share a belief and provide support -Irrational Appeal to Common Belief: states that you should believe something because most people believe it -Rational Appeal to Tolerance: explains why tolerance is appropriate in the particular situation in question -Irrational Appeal to Tolerance: states that tolerance is good in general & is the right response to every situation