Pastoral Peoples on the Global Stage Chapter 11 – The Mongol Moment, 1200 – 1450

The World of Pastoral Societies Pastoral societies dependent on horses, camels, goats, sheep, cattle, yaks, and reindeer. Not in the Americas – no domesticated animals. Feature of Pastoral Nomads: - generally less productive. - needed large grazing lands. - supported smaller populations. - lived in kinship groups / clans (male line). - more social and gender equality. - mobility (most characteristic feature).

The World of Pastoral Societies (Cont’d) Deep connection with agricultural neighbors: - sought access to food; manufactured/luxury goods. - adopted Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity; Islam. Formation of states was difficult but possible: - Chinggis (Genghis) Khan. - unified the tribes (tribal confederations). - almost all men (some women) became warriors. Success in extracting wealth: raiding, trading; extortion. Most fundamental contribution: mastering environments unsuitable for agriculture. After 1000 B.C.E., horseback riding changed the lives of the nomads.

Before the Mongols: Pastoralists in History The Xiongnu Confederacy was an early nomadic empire (3rd and 2nd century B.C.E.). Mounted warfare made empire possible: -horses of the steppes. Centralized and hierarchical political system. Served as a model for Turkic and Mongol Empires. Extracted tribute from China and other nomads.

Map of the Xiongnu Confederacy

Before the Mongols: Pastoralists in History (Cont’d) Greatest impact of nomads was from 500-1500: -Arabs, Berbers, Turks, and Mongols created largest empires. Byzantium, Persia, India, and China were all controlled at least for a time by formerly nomadic people. They too were transformed by the experience. Bedouin (desert-dwelling) Arabs: - camel nomads (500 and 100 B.C.E.). - effective fighters; shock troops of Islamic expansion. - made trade through Arabia possible.

The Bedouins

Before the Mongols: Pastoralists in History (Cont’d) A variety of Turkic speaking peoples came out of the steppes of Central Asia and threatened these settled agricultural empires. Soon aspects of Turkic culture influenced China. The Seljuk Turks fought a series of wars with Byzantium, but it was the Ottoman Turks that finally overthrew it in 1453. In Northwest Africa, the Berber people converted to Islam. After 1039, Ibn Yasin launched a reform campaign. Soon the movement became an expansionist state that moved into Spain and controlled much of present-day Morocco. Like other examples, the Almoravids became urbanized and enjoyed impressive art and architecture.

Map of the Almoravid Empire

The Mongol Empire Created the largest land empire in history. Extensive connections of nomads with agricultural neighbors – trade/tribute: -mostly interested in exploiting neighbors. Mongol population – only 700,000 people. They did not bequeath a new language, religion, or civilization to the world. The Mongols – the last great nomadic state.

From Temujin to Chinggis Khan: The Rise of the Mongol Empire Temujin (1162-1227) created the Mongol Empire. Shifting alliances, betrayals, and military victories: - reputation as a great leader. 1206 – tribal council recognized him as “Chinggis Khan” (universal ruler). Wide expansion after unification. By the time of his death, the mission of Chinggis Khan was to “unify the world.”

Map of the Mongol Empire

Chinggis Khan

Explaining the Mongol Moment Well-led, organized, and disciplined army: - conquered tribes were broken up and scattered among units. - all members of a unit were killed if any deserted in battle. - leaders shared the hardships of their men. - elaborate tactics: encirclement, retreat; deception. - horses of the steppes. Reputation of Brutality: - those who resisted were destroyed.

Mongolian Battles

Explaining the Mongol Moment (Cont’d) Elaborate census-taking and systematic taxation. System of relay stations for communication and trade. Encouraged commerce (Marco Polo). A centralized bureaucracy developed in Karakorum. Advisory or lower administrative posts to Chinese and Muslim officials. Practiced religious toleration.

China and the Mongols Destructive in northern China, more tolerant in South: - accommodation of the local populace. - landowners guaranteed their estates in return for support. - gave themselves a dynastic title (the Yuan dynasty). - built a new capital, Khanbalik (Beijing). But the Mongolians were still harsh: - Mongols did not become Chinese. - Mongol law discriminated. - women had a surprisingly good quality of life. Rebellions forced the Mongols out in 1368. (Ming)

Persia and the Mongols Very destructive: - many Muslims massacred during mid-13th century. - agriculture ruined; turned into pasture land. Mongols in Persia were transformed: - large-scale conversion to Islam. - extensive use of the Persian bureaucracy. - Mongol elites learned some Farsi (Persian). The Mongols had assimilated when the Mongol dynasty collapsed in the 1330s.

Russia and the Mongols Divided Russia was devastated between 1237 and 1240: - destruction of cities. - widespread slaughter. - deportation of skilled workers to other Mongol lands. Did not occupy Russia (became a vassal): - invaded for tribute, taxes, and slaves. - Moscow was the primary tax collector, which made it powerful. Russia broke free of Mongolian rule by the 15th century. Remember: Russia = Christian/Orthodox Church.

Map of the Mongol Empire

Toward a World Economy Towards a Global Economy: - produced little, not active traders. - but they promoted trade as a source of tax revenue. - created relatively safe travel across central Asia (Marco Polo made the trip and got home safe). The Mongol trade circuit connected to other trade networks throughout the rest of Asia, the Indian Ocean, the Middle east, Africa, and Europe, doing much to forge a global economy.

Diplomacy on a Eurasian Scale When the Mongols made their way into Eastern Europe in a 1241–1242 campaign, they seemed poised to take the region. Aware of the Mongol threat, European kings and the Pope sent emissaries to negotiate with the Mongols. European discovery of the outside world: these missions provided the previously isolated Europeans with a wealth of knowledge about the rest of the world. Mongol linkage of China and Persia: as these two great empires were part of a larger Mongol system, communications between them increased.

Cultural Exchange in the Mongol Realm Cultural Exchange: - thousands of artisans and craftsmen were forcibly relocated to Karakorum (Mongol Capital). - Chinese technology and art flowed westward. - Europe benefited greatly from these encounters. - scholars argue that Europe’s rise to power has its foundations with the Mongols.

A Eurasian Network

The Plague (Black Death) Spread across Eurasian trade routes (China origin). Spread by fleas on rats beginning in 1331. First biological warfare – Mongols catapulted plague infested bodies into enemy towns. Plague responsible for breakdown of Mongol Empire and eliminating trade routes: - this is why Europeans sought other routes to Asia. 1/2 – 2/3 of Europe’s people died: - undermined serfdom. - more equality for women.

The Black Death