Missing in Action: Egalitarian Justice and Care Ethics By Steven Wright University of Alabama College of Education Summer 2018

Introduction What is justice? What is care? Being fair or reasonable Just behavior or treatment Central to an ethic of care What is care? Multiple conceptualizations Actions and behaviors Feeling and emotion Sympathy in action Reciprocal phenomenological activities

Justice Classical Greek Plato- rational, logical order in relationships, society Aristotle- lawful, fair, equitable treatment; polis (participation in political society) Medieval Christian Augustine- 4 cardinal virtues; prudence, fortitude, temperance, justice (giving people rightful due, based on God’s law) Aquinas- moral habit of a virtuous character; constant and perpetual will, proportional and reciprocal Early Modern Hobbes- radical empiricist; justice is an artificial virtue, created to establish peace or render enemies incapable of harm Hume- utilitarian view; a social construct created to maximize collective well-being, protect property rights

Justice Late Modern Kant-respect for individuals’ freedom, autonomy, dignity. Doing right because it is the right thing to do No expectation of benefit Women are “passive citizens” Mill- Utilitarian view; foster greatest happiness. 5 principles respecting legal rights respecting moral rights giving what is due for effort maintaining trust and faith impartiality

Justice Contemporary Rawls- Kantian perspective, truly equal starting point Original position Equitable rights and duties Inequalities permissible only if benefit to least advantaged Veil of ignorance Nozick- libertarian; entitlement concept, just and fair acquisition of property and holdings Nielsen- socialist; individuals have equal basic liberties and opportunities, equal distribution of income and wealth Sandel- communitarian; just actions derived from and benefit the community

Justice Contemporary Feminist Nussbaum- global, non-gendered construct Five key dimensions Cross cultural internationalism Humanism, promoting equality Liberalism, affording everyone equal worth Cultural sensitivity Sympathetic understanding between the sexes Respect for ten basic human capabilities

Ethics of Care Nursing Care Nightingale- meeting physical and emotional needs Orem- promote individual independence, well-being, self care Watson- a practice, demonstrative actions; recognize and influence person, environment, health, nursing Leininger- transcultural aspect of care, acknowledge diversity and different perspectives (relative to dominant white culture) Hall- patient right to absolute autonomy

Ethics of Care Feminist Ethic of Care Gilligan Noddings a relational interaction process, primary focus to maintain and strengthen relationship ties Argues against Kohlberg’s assertion that women are morally immature Noddings Men and women guided by basic concept of natural care Based on experiencing sympathy- women more adept Caring for- the face to face individual, active process Caring about- public, grand concept of concern and basis for just actions

Ethics of Care Emerging Care Ethics Cloyes-agonist feminist ethic; politicizing discussions and conceptualizations Tronto- power stuctures control care; subjugation of women and minorities to benefit social elite Post-social contract- construct of care is discriminatory and exclusionary Post-human- addresses technology advances and impact on caring concepts

Implications Justice is inseparable from care No clear universal, just ethic of care Adjunctive models fall short Consider pragmatic praxis Kant may be most equitable and practical justice concept, even though flawed and discriminatory to women (social and cultural contextual influence) Nussbaum could also be practical in use Noddings might be most universally acceptable and equitable ethic of care Further investigation and research needed

Conclusion All theories and frameworks have shortcomings and inherent biases Continued research and investigation is needed Pragmatic, practical approach may be most appropriate