Gender Stratification Society The Basics FOURTEENTH EDITION Chapter 10 Gender Stratification

Learning Objectives 10.1 Describe research that points to how society creates gender stratification. 10.2 Explain the importance of gender to socialization. 10.3 Analyze the extent of gender inequality in various social institutions. 10.4 Apply sociology’s major theories to gender stratification. 10.5 Contrast liberal, radical, and socialist feminism.

The Power of Society If you were free to do either, would you prefer to have a job outside the home, or would you prefer to stay at home and take care of the house and family?

Gender and Inequality Gender Gender stratification Personal traits and social positions members of a society attach to being female and male Gender stratification Unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women “Women and men still lead different lives in the United States and elsewhere in the world, but in most respects men are still in charge.”

Gender in a Global Perspective (1 of 4) Learning Objective 10 Gender in a Global Perspective (1 of 4) Learning Objective 10.1: Describe research that points to how society creates gender stratification. Israeli Kibbutz Gender equality is one of its stated goals. Women and men in the kibbutzim achieved remarkable (although not complete) social equality. Culture defines what is feminine and what is masculine. In every society, people assume that certain jobs, patterns of behavior, and ways of dressing are “naturally” feminine while others are just as obviously masculine. But in global perspective, we see remarkable variety in such social definitions.

Gender in a Global Perspective (2 of 4) Mead Culture is the key to gender distinctions. What one society defines as masculine another may see as feminine. Gewertz Challenged Mead’s “reversal hypothesis” In every society, people assume that certain jobs, patterns of behavior, and ways of dressing are “naturally” feminine while others are just as obviously masculine. But in global perspective, we see remarkable variety in such social definitions.

Gender in a Global Perspective (3 of 4) These men, Wodaabe pastoral nomads who live in the African nation of Niger, are proud to engage in a display of beauty most people in our society would consider feminine. In every society, people assume that certain jobs, patterns of behavior, and ways of dressing are “naturally” feminine while others are just as obviously masculine. But in global perspective, we see remarkable variety in such social definitions.

Gender in a Global Perspective (4 of 4) George Murdock Some global agreement about feminine and masculine tasks Much variety Evaluation Feminine or masculine not consistently defined Gender is too variable to be a simple expression of biology.

Patriarchy Matriarchy Patriarchy Form of social organization in which females dominate males Patriarchy Form of social organization in which males dominate females

Sexism Sexism Institutional sexism Belief that one sex or the other is innately inferior or superior Institutional sexism Sexism found throughout the economy

Figure 10-1 Men’s and Women’s Athletic Performance

Global Map 10-1 Women’s Power in Global Perspective Women’s social standing in relation to men’s varies around the world. In general, women live better rich countries than in poor countries. Even so, some nations stand out: In the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, and Switzerland women come closest to social equality with men. Source: Data from United Nations Development Programme (2013).

Figure 10-2 Housework: Who Does How Much?

Patriarchy and Sexism The costs of sexism Inevitability of patriarchy Sexism has a high price for both women and men. Inevitability of patriarchy Most sociologists believe gender is socially constructed and can be changed.

Gender and Socialization Learning Objective 10 Gender and Socialization Learning Objective 10.2: Explain the importance of gender to socialization. Gender roles (sex roles) Are attitudes and activities that a society links to each sex Gender Affects how we think of ourselves and teaches us how to behave. Includes mix of feminine and masculine traits in most personalities

Gender and the Family Gender messages Is it a boy or girl? Color-coding gender Traditional notions of gender identity Handling of and expectations for children Female: passivity and emotion Male: independence and action

Gender and Peer Groups Lever Gilligan Boys favor team sports with complex rules and clear objectives. Girls’ sports teach interpersonal skills and the value of sharing and cooperation. Gilligan Boys reason according to abstract principles. Girls consider morality a matter of responsibility to others.

Gender and Schooling Schooling Gender shapes interests and beliefs, guides areas of study, and career choices. Women are now well represented in many fields of study that once excluded them.

Gender and the Mass Media (1 of 2) White males have center stage. Minorities locked out until the early 1970s. Women receive roles based on sex appeal.

Gender and the Mass Media (2 of 2) Wolf: The “beauty myth” Striving to be physically attractive to men is the key to women’s happiness. Women should measure their worth in terms of physical appearance. Women should prize relationships with men attracted with their beauty. In our society, the mass media have enormous influence on our attitudes and behavior, and what we see shapes our view of gender. In the 2012 film Hunger Games, we see Jennifer Lawrence playing Katniss Everdeen, a take-charge, female lead character. Such a portrayal is an exception to the conventional pattern by which active males play against more passive females. In your opinion, how much can the mass media change conventional ideas about gender? Why?

Working Women and Men Learning Objective 10 Working Women and Men Learning Objective 10.3: Analyze the extent of gender inequality in various social institutions. Women 60% of all women work and 71% of working women work full-time. Women hold primary responsibility for housework and parenting. On average, women earn 78 cents for every dollar earned by men. “Pink-collar” are at the lower end of the pay scale.

Table 10–1 Jobs with the Highest Concentrations of Women, 2014 Occupation Number of Women Employed Percentage in Occupation Who Are Women 1. Speech-language pathologist 135,000 98.4% 2. Preschool or kindergarten teacher 645,000 97.2% 3. Dental hygienist 170,000 97.1% 4. Medical transcriptionist 56,000 5. Dental assistant 264,000 96.6% 6. Child care worker 1,163,000 95.5% 7. Hairdresser or cosmetologist 719,000 94.6% 8. Secretary or administrative assistant 2,821,000 94.2% 9. Medical assistant 471,000 92.8% 10. Dietician or nutritionist 114,000 92.4% SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor (2015)

Social Stratification Men Men dominate 99% of brick masons, stone masons, and heavy equipment mechanics. Around 86% of architects and engineers, 88% of police officers, 68% of lawyers, 66% of physicians and surgeons, and 57% of corporate managers are male.

Gender and Education Education Women are 57% of college students. 36% of women and 28% of men complete four-year college degree. Men still predominate in some professional fields.

Table 10–2 Significant Firsts for Women in U.S. Politics (1 of 3) 1869 Law allows women to vote in Wyoming Territory. 1872 First woman to run for the presidency (Victoria Woodhull) represents the Equal Rights party. 1917 First woman elected to the House of Representatives (Jeannette Rankin of Montana). 1924 First women elected state governors (Nellie Taylor Ross of Wyoming and Miriam “Ma” Ferguson of Texas); both followed their husbands into office. First woman to have her name placed in nomination for the vice-presidency at the convention of a major political party (Lena Jones Springs, a Democrat). 1931 First woman to serve in the Senate (Hattie Caraway of Arkansas); completed the term of her husband upon his death and won reelection in 1932. 1932 First woman appointed to the presidential cabinet (Frances Perkins, secretary of labor in the cabinet of President Franklin D. Roosevelt). 1964 First woman to have her name placed in nomination for the presidency at the convention of a major political party (Margaret Chase Smith, a Republican).

Table 10–2 Significant Firsts for Women in U.S. Politics (2 of 3) 1972 First African American woman to have her name placed in nomination for the presidency at the convention of a major political party (Shirley Chisholm, a Democrat). 1981 First woman appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court (Sandra Day O’Connor). 1984 First woman to be successfully nominated for the vice-presidency (Geraldine Ferraro, a Democrat). 1988 First woman chief executive to be elected to a consecutive third term (Madeleine Kunin, governor of Vermont). 1992 Political “Year of the Woman” yields record number of women in the Senate (six) and the House (forty-eight), as well as first African American woman to win election to U.S. Senate (Carol Moseley-Braun of Illinois), first state (California) to be served by two women senators (Barbara Boxer and Dianne Feinstein), and first woman of Puerto Rican descent elected to the House (Nydia Velazquez of New York). 1996 First woman appointed secretary of state (Madeleine Albright). 2000 First former First Lady to win elected political office (Hillary Rodham Clinton, senator from New York).

Table 10–2 Significant Firsts for Women in U.S. Politics (3 of 3) 2001 First woman to serve as national security adviser (Condoleezza Rice); first Asian American woman to serve in a presidential cabinet (Elaine Chao). 2005 First African American woman appointed secretary of state (Condoleezza Rice). 2007 First woman elected as Speaker of the House (Nancy Pelosi). 2008 For the first time, women make up a majority of a state legislature (New Hampshire). 2013 Record number of women in the Senate (twenty) and the House (seventy-eight). Also, New Hampshire becomes the first state to have all-women leadership as the governor and all U.S. senators and members of Congress are women. 2014 First woman to head Federal Reserve (Janet Yellen).

Gender and Politics Politics Women are shaping political attitudes. Women active in local, state politics. Change is also coming to highest level of power. Women make up half of Earth’s population, but they hold just 20 percent of seats in the world’s 190 parliamentary governments.

National Map 10-1 Women in State Government across the United States Although women make up half of U.S. adults, in 2013 just 24 percent of the seats in state legislatures are held by women. Look at the state-by-state variations in the map. In which regions of the country have women gained the greatest political power? What do you think accounts for this pattern? Source: Center for American Women and Politics (2012).

Gender and Military Military 13% of US military personnel are women, including deployed troops. Culture influences our views of women in the military. Women make up half of Earth’s population, but they hold just 20 percent of seats in the world’s 190 parliamentary governments.

Gender and Unemployment Unemployment rate for adult women stood at 6.7%, just below the figure of 6.8%for adult men. Causes for 2/3 of earning differences Type of work Family responsibilities Discrimination against women

Violence against Women (1 of 2) Are women a minority? At every class level, women have less income, wealth, education, and power than men.

Violence against Women (2 of 2) In the 19th century Men claimed the right to physically discipline their wives. Today Sexual assaults, rapes, attempted rapes, and physical assaults Campus and university gender violence Gender-linked violence often in the home Female genital mutilation A government report estimates that 452,232 aggravated assaults against women occur annually. To this number can be added 208,987 rapes or sexual assaults and 1.7 million simple assaults.

Global Map 10-2 Female Genital Mutilation in Global Perspective

Violence against Men Men are more likely to be both the perpetrators and victims of violence. Our culture tends to define masculinity in terms of aggression and violence. Men’s lives involve more stress and isolation than women’s lives.

Sexual Harassment (1 of 2) Comments, gestures, or physical contacts of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, and unwelcome In recent decades, our society has recognized sexual harassment as an important problem. At least officially, unwelcome sexual attention is no longer tolerated in the workplace. The television show Mad Men, which gives us a window back to the early 1960s, shows us our society before the more recent wave of feminism began

Sexual Harassment (2 of 2) Causes of sexual harassment Culture encourages men to be sexually assertive and perceive women in sexual terms. Men occupy most positions of power. “Effect standard”: Hostile environment involves different perceptions of the same behavior.

Pornography Sexually explicit material that causes sexual arousal Gender-stratification point of view Considers pornography a power issue Promotes violence against women portraying them as weak/undeserving of respect Moral issue Different views of what is and is not pornographic

Theoretical Analysis of Gender (1 of 4) Learning Objective 10 Theoretical Analysis of Gender (1 of 4) Learning Objective 10.4: Apply sociology’s major theories to gender stratification. Parsons: Structural-functional analysis Gender forms a complementary set of roles. Socialization stresses instrumental qualities for males and expressive qualities for females. Evaluation Assumes singular view of society Ignores personal strain and social costs of rigid gender roles May espouse male domination of women

Theoretical Analysis of Gender (2 of 4) Symbolic-interaction analysis Gender involves differences in behavior. Women are expected to be more deferential. Gender shapes reality experience in everyday life. Evaluation Shows how gender shapes everyday experiences Focuses on situational social experiences but not broad patterns of inequality Posits modern societies relax traditional gender roles as they become more meritocratic

Theoretical Analysis of Gender (3 of 4) Engels Social-conflict analysis Capitalism strengthens male domination. Gender involves differences in power. Capitalist economy depends on development of consumers. Evaluation Strongly critical of conventional ideas about gender Minimizes the extent to which women and men live together cooperatively Suggests capitalism is the basis of gender stratification

Theoretical Analysis of Gender (4 of 4) Intersection theory Interplay of race, class, and gender, resulting in multiple dimensions of disadvantage. Disadvantages linked to gender and race often combine to produce low social standing. Multilayered system is disadvantage for some and privilege for others. Evaluation Women are differentially disadvantaged Solutions about dealing with gender stratification not addressed

Feminism Learning Objective 10 Feminism Learning Objective 10.5: Contrast liberal, radical, and socialist feminism. Support of social equality for women and men, in opposition to patriarchy and sexism Working to increase equality Expansion of human choice Eliminate gender stratification Ending sexual violence Promoting sexual freedom

Types of Feminism (1 of 2) Opposition to feminism Threat to male status and privilege Resistance to feminism is strongest among women with lower levels of education.

Types of Feminism (2 of 2) Liberal feminism Socialist feminism Free to develop own talents and interests Socialist feminism Family form must change with some collective means of carrying out housework and childcare Radical feminism An egalitarian, gender-free society

Applying Theory Feminism Liberal Feminism Socialist Feminism Radical Feminism Does it accept the basic order of society? Yes. Liberal feminism seeks change only to ensure equality of opportunity. No. Socialist feminism supports an end to social classes and to family gender roles that encourage “domestic slavery.” No. Radical feminism supports an end to the family system. How do women improve their social standing? Individually, according to personal ability and effort. Collectively, through socialist revolution. Collectively, by working to eliminate gender itself.