Overview of civil society protests The Women’s Liberation and Feminist Movements in the 1960s and 1970s.

Position of women in the 1950s Middle class women in Western countries expected to be at home and raise families. Some worked: limited career options. Women worked longer hours and were paid less. Marriage = loss of jobs. Skills of women were often undermined by sexist attitudes and sexual harassment.

Start of the Women's Movement in the USA Women’s attitudes started to change in the 1960s. They no longer wanted to be restricted: wanted greater independence on a personal level and in public. Inspired by the book The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan – spoke of ‘Women’s Liberation’. Civil Rights Act 1964 – outlawed discrimination on the grounds of gender and race. Friedan and others form National Organisation for Women (NOW). NOW help peaceful demonstrations etc. for greater equality in the workplace. Lobbied for maternity leave and childcare centres to follow careers.

The Women’s Liberation Movement Some feminists believed NOW was not radical enough. They adopted more forceful tactics. Became known as the Women’s Liberation Movement (Women’s Lib). Protested against male sexism by invading all-male clubs and bars, etc. Protested against beauty pageants, burned their bras and threw stockings, high-heels, corsets, curlers, etc. in rubbish bins. Many women did not identify with the Movement. Many African American women did not participate as they were involved in the CRM, which was more pressing for them.

‘The Pill’ and abortion This development changed the lives of millions of women. Women had few methods of controlling pregnancy before this and had dangerous illegal abortions. ‘The Pill’ gave them freedom to pursue careers. 1970s – abortion became available in many states, despite strong opposition.

Women in South Africa Women played an important role in civil society protest between the 1950s and the 1970s. Apartheid was at its height – difficult for women to unite regarding gender issues when they were divided by race. The need for freedom from racial discrimination often overrode the grievances of gender discrimination.

Women workers and trade unionism 1950s – many women entering wage employment. Black women outnumbered white in the industrial labour force. Women became more prominent in the trade unions, however they were separated by race in the 1940s. Some women began to challenge this situation. FCWU – Food and Canning Workers Union: members consisted of all races; fought for worker’s rights and politicised members in a radical and non-racial way. Played a part in founding SACTU, the South African Congress of Trade Unions which fought against apartheid laws and included many women.

Women in the rural areas Most women were based in rural areas and the informal sector (hawkers or running shebeens in townships, farming). Migrant labour system – men were away from home for most of the year. Women protested against carrying passes, and wanted deposed chiefs reinstated (Zeerust); fled to Botswana when police moved in. Townships – illegal beer-brewing protest: against the destruction of shebeens and the state-run municipal beer halls. Also destroyed beer halls and forced people to boycott them (Natal).

Anti-pass campaigns Most civil protest by women due to pass issue. Women expected to carry passes like men in 1954 – led to the foundation of the Federation of South African Women (FSAW). This was a non-racial organisation that placed women’s rights first. 1956 – march of 20 000 women of all races to Pretoria to deliver letters of protest to government: Song “You strike a woman, you strike a rock!”. Celebrated as Women’s Day - 9 August. FSAW linked to liberation movement – combined feminist concerns about social equality with the need to join the liberation struggle against apartheid.

Black Sash Movement During 1960s and early 1970s, severe state oppression reduced all resistance, including women’s protest actions. During these years, the Black Sash – middle-class and predominantly white women – organised silent public protests and ran advisory offices to help people affected by pass laws. Did not focus especially on women’s issues. Many white members did not want radical social or political change.

Continued… SA women played an important role in the civil rights protests, but there were differences in the ways in which black and white women reacted. Black women felt that feminism and women’s issues were less relevant than the broader struggle they faced. Fewer white women were prepared to participate in the civil protest movements. Ruth First and Helen Joseph – both tried for treason. The Black Sash tried to work to change the laws and policies of the white government but still recognized its authority. They did not try to overthrow it.

The peace movements Disarmament: nuclear weapons developed during the Cold War. Protested against the development and storage of these weapons ‘Ban the Bomb’. The student’s movement: young people in the 1960s known as the ‘baby boomers’. Born after the end of WW2 when there was a surge in the birth rate. Many questioned the conservative values of their parents. They protested to bring about change in Western society. The anti-Vietnam War movement: strong protest movement against American involvement in Vietnam.