MOTIVATION The psychological process that directs and maintains behavior toward a goal, fueled by motives---needs or desires that energize behavior

Instincts: complex, inherited behavior patterns characteristic of a species---must be stereotypical, automatically performed in the same way by all members of a species in response to a specific stimulus Konrad Lorenz: geese; studied imprinting---attachment formed to the first moving object they see or hear soon after birth by following that object EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY Clark Hull Behavior is motivated by the need to reduce drives, such as hunger, thirst, or sex Need: motivated state caused by a physiological deficit Need activates a Drive: state of psychological tension induced by a need Used to maintain Homeostasis: balance DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY

Incentive: a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior They “pull” us toward a goal INCENTIVE THEORY

Arousal: the level of alertness, wakefulness, and attention caused by activity in the central nervous system Yerkes-Dodson Law: we usually perform most activities best when moderately aroused, and efficiency of performance is usually lower when arousal is either too low or too high AROUSAL THEORY

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Abraham Maslow We need to satisfy basic biological needs first, then satisfy needs for security in a world that is organized and predictable Self-actualization: achievement of all of our potentials Scientific evidence does NOT support this idea MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

HUNGER Hypothalamus regulates hunger Lateral hypothalamus (LH): “on” button for hunger Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH): “off” button for hunger Environmental cues as well HUNGER

HUNGER Twin studies show possible genetic predisposition to obesity Set point: preset natural body weight Anorexia nervosa: weighing less than 85% of normal body weight; still afraid of being fat Bulimia nervosa: more common than anorexia; binging on food and purging by vomiting or use of laxatives HUNGER

THIRST Similar to regulation of hunger Based mostly on fluid content and volume of blood Osmoreceptors are sensitive to dehydration of cells Hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH)---this promotes reabsorption of water in the kidneys THIRST

Sexual motivation in humans is related to testosterone levels (in both sexes) Sexual orientation: direction of an individual’s sexual interest Sexual response cycle: excitement (arousal); plateau (increased breathing and heart rate); orgasm; resolution/refractory period SEX

AND NOW FOR THE NON-PHYSICAL…

A desire to meet some internalized standard of excellence David McClelland measured achievement motive through the Thematic Aptitude Test (TAT) People with a high achievement motive seek moderately challenging tasks---don’t want anything that is too easy ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE

The need to be with others AFFILIATION MOTIVE

INTRINSIC VS. EXTRINSIC Intrinsic motivation: a desire to perform an activity for its own sake rather than an external reward Extrinsic motivation: a desire to perform an activity to obtain a reward from outside the individual Overjustification effect: when extrinsic motivation takes over for an intrinsic motivation INTRINSIC VS. EXTRINSIC

SOCIAL CONFLICT SITUATIONS Conflict: being torn in different directions by opposing motives that block us from attaining a goal Approach-Approach conflicts: least stressful; two positive options, you can only choose one Avoidance-Avoidance conflicts: 2 negative options, one of which you must choose Approach-Avoidance conflicts: situations involving whether or not to choose an option that has both a positive and negative consequence or consequences Multiple Approach-Avoidance conflict: most complex; situations involving several alternative courses of action that have both positive and negative aspects SOCIAL CONFLICT SITUATIONS

Def: a conscious feeling of pleasantness or unpleasantness accompanied by biological activation and expressive behavior; has cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components Frontal lobes control and interpret emotions Left hemisphere: positive emotions Right hemisphere: negative emotions EMOTION

JAMES-LANGE THEORY William James and Karl Lange Physiological arousal leads to our conscious experience of emotion JAMES-LANGE THEORY

OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY Following a strong emotion, an opposing emotion counters the first emotion, lessening the experience of that emotion; on repeated occasions, the opposing emotion becomes stronger OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY

SCHACHTER TWO-FACTOR THEORY We determine an emotion from physiological arousal, then label that emotion according to our cognitive explanation for the arousal SCHACHTER TWO-FACTOR THEORY

STRESS AND COPING

Conflict: being torn in different directions by opposing motives that block us from attaining a goal Approach-Approach conflicts: least stressful; two positive options, you can only choose one Avoidance-Avoidance conflicts: 2 negative options, one of which you must choose Approach-Avoidance conflicts: situations involving whether or not to choose an option that has both a positive and negative consequence or consequences Multiple Approach-Avoidance conflict: most complex; situations involving several alternative courses of action that have both positive and negative aspects

GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME Hans Selye Stress: process by which we appraise and respond to environmental threats Stressors: stimuli that we perceive as endangering our well-being 3 Stages of GAS: Alarm: sympathetic NS activity increases; prepare for fight or flight Resistance: continued stress in this stage can result in decreased immunity to certain diseases Exhaustion: may result in illnesses like ulcers, depression, or even death GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

Catastrophes: stressors that are unpredictable, large-scale disasters which threaten us Death of a loved one, marriage, divorce, change job, moving, etc… Daily hassles: everyday annoyances STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS

Type A personality: high achievers, competitive, impatient, multi-taskers Type B personality: relaxed, calm in approach to life Type A more likely to develop health problems STRESS AND HEALTH

Can be adaptive (remove or tolerate) or maladaptive (substituting one stressor for another---can include defense mechanisms) Health psychs suggest relaxation, visualization, meditation, and biofeedback to lessen effects of stress and boost immune system COPING STRATEGIES