Memory Lesson 1

A Memory Test.. What is Memory? From memory…. Re-create the psychology timeline. You have 3 minutes!

Pair up with someone in your team Pair up with someone in your team. Each pair give themselves a letter A, B, C , D or E.

Did you get it correct? What is Memory? Discuss: How did you recall the psychology timeline? Did you use any strategies? How easy was it to recall? Why? What type of memory is this testing?

Short Term Memory Long Term Memory Information that we process and recall straight away. It stores the information we are currently aware of. Long Term Memory The memory for past events that can last for the life time of a person. Its capacity is unlimited.

Why is Memory Important? What is Memory? Why is Memory Important? Case studies of brain damaged patients have shown that memory is vital for learning. Without memory, no learning would take place. Memory is used for remembering how to do things such as catch a bus or ride a bike. It is also important for talking to friends and remembering places. Without memory….we wouldn’t be human!

Objectives To be able to describe the capacity, duration and coding of the STM To be able to outline one research study into the capacity, duration and coding in the STM Challenge To be able to evaluate research into STM and LTM

Specification The multi-store model of memory: sensory register, short-term memory and long-term memory. Features of each store: coding, capacity and duration. The working memory model: central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad and episodic buffer. Features of the model: coding and capacity. Types of long-term memory: episodic, semantic, procedural. Explanations for forgetting: proactive and retroactive interference and retrieval failure due to absence of cues. Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: misleading information, including leading questions and post-event discussion; anxiety. Improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, including the use of the cognitive interview.

If you remember the last slide, you have used your memory. What is Memory? Definition: “keep hold of - Store” Human memory can most broadly be defined as the process by which we retain information about events that have happened in the past. This does not just mean things that happened years ago, but also in our immediate past. If you remember the last slide, you have used your memory.

Define the following words In your own words, define the following terms… Capacity Coding Duration

Define the following words Capacity: how much? The measure of how much can be held in memory. For example, how many digits can be held in STM. Coding: how is it changed so it can be used in your memory? As information enters the brain via the senses, it is transformed into a code so that it can be stored. The codes can be visual (picture), acoustic (sounds) or semantic (the meaning of the information) Duration: how long? The measure of how long memory lasts before it is no longer available

STM: Coding (encoding) Baddeley (1966)

I am going to read a list of words out to you. Listen to your list and then right the words down in the correct order. Question: There are 4 conditions – what experimental design is being used?

List A Man Cap Can Cab Mad Mat Cat Map List A Cap Mad Map Cat Man Can   Man Cap Can Cab Mad Mat Cat Map List A Cap Mad Map Cat Man Can Cab Mat

List B Pit Few Cow Pen Sup Bar Day Kit Mixed list Pen Kit Few Day Bar   Mixed list Pen Kit Few Day Bar Cow Pit Sup

List C Large Big Huge Broad Tall Fat Wide High Mixed list Tall Broad

List D Good Huge Hot Safe Thin Deep Strong Foul Mixed list Safe Hot

Draw the following chart for today… STM Research and findings Evaluation Coding Capacity Duration

The Mean Most sensitive measure More representative  Can be distorted Coding results: The Mean Most sensitive measure More representative  Can be distorted STM Acoustically similar Acoustically dissimilar Semantically similar Semantically dissimilar

Task: to measure LTM You have been given your list of words that you looked at… Arrange the list in the correct order…

The Mean Most sensitive measure More representative  Can be distorted Coding results: The Mean Most sensitive measure More representative  Can be distorted LTM Acoustically similar Acoustically dissimilar Semantically similar Semantically dissimilar

Task: answer the following questions on encoding Baddeley (1966) Coding of STM and LTM

Findings in the original study: Baddeley (1966) Participants tended to do worse with acoustically similar words Participants in LTM did worse in semantically similar Therefore The greater confusion shows that words in the short term memory are stored acoustically The greater confusion shows that words in the long term memory is stored semantically

Baddeley concludes that LTM encodes semantically, at least primarily Baddeley concludes that LTM encodes semantically, at least primarily. His earlier experiments suggest STM encodes acoustically. This is why LTM gets confused when it has to retrieve the order words which are semantically similar: it gets distracted by the semantic similarities and muddles them up. It has no problem retrieving acoustically similar words because LTM pays no attention to how the words sound.

Coding Evaluation Experimental control (20 minute delay) Artificial stimuli Just words- who cares? The ecological validity of Baddeley study is not good. Recalling lists of words is quite artificial but you sometimes have to do it (a shopping list, for example). Recalling the order of words is completely artificial and doesn’t resemble anything you would use memory to do in the real world.

STM: Capacity Jacobs and Miller

Digit span task Watch the powerpoint Write down the digits (in the correct order) once you see ‘end of list’ appear on the screen

Stimulus List for Digit Span Demonstration 8 1 3 0 2 5 3 6 8 3 7 9 2 5 6 0 7 1 8 4 5 3 1 2 7 5 3 6 3 4 1 0 8 3 2 3 7 5 4 4 6 9 7 3 4 6 1 2 7 Is there anyway we can improve the capacity of our short term memory?

How many digits could you remember?

Jacobs (1887) Miller (1956) Jacobs (1887) research on the capacity of STM Participants were presented with a sequence of digits or letters and required to repeat them back in the same order. (The pace was controlled at half second intervals using a metronome). Jacobs conducted the first study on the capacity of memory and found the amount of information which can be remembered on one exposure is 9 digit items and 7 letter items. Jacobs found that participants recalled more digits (9 items) than letters (7 items) Jacobs also found that capacity increased steadily with age; in one sample of school girls he found that 8 year olds remembered an average of 6.6 digits whereas for 19 year olds it was 8.6 digits.

Miller (1956) Chunking Which list would be easier to remember? Y E B N O I P D T A L G R C U C A R D O G L I T P E N B U Y What does this suggest about our memory?

Jacobs (1887) Miller (1956) Miller in (1956) found that chunking information can help improve the capacity of the STM by 7+/-2 chunks of information.

Jacobs (1887) Miller (1956) Answer the following questions using your worksheet provided: How was the capacity of STM of an individual decided? Average span for digit? Average span for letters? Difference in spans across ages? Are there individual differences? Why is it useful? Extension: Can you think of any further evaluation points for Miller?

Capacity: Evaluation Miller’s (1956) theory is supported by psychological research. For example, Jacobs (1887) Although Miller’s (1956) theory is supported by psychological research, he did not specify how large each ‘chunk’ of information could be and therefore we are unable to conclude the exact capacity of short-term memory. Consequently, further research is required to determine the each size of information ‘chunks’ to understand the exact capacity of short-term memory. Finally, Miller’s (1956) research into short-term memory did not take into account other factors that affect capacity. For example, age could also affect short-term memory and Jacobs (1887) research acknowledged that short-term memory gradually improved with age.

STM: Duration

Duration Peterson and Peterson claim that information in the STM can disappear in less than 30 seconds if it is not rehearsed On each trial the participants saw a trigram, which consisted of three consonants (e.g. BVM, CTG) A different trigram was used for each trial. They were asked to recall each trigram after a delay of seconds: 3,6,9,12,15 or 18. Once they were shown the trigram they had to perform an interference task, which prevented repetition of the trigram in STM. They were shown a random three digit number (e.g.866, 532) and had to count backwards from it in threes. After the appropriate time delay the trigram had to be recalled.

Duration of STM Peterson and Peterson (1959) Watch the powerpoint You will be presented with 3 letters You will count backwards in threes from three numbers then recall the original

Practice

SMP

395

Ready?

XTR

289

FBW

495

LCP

987

GZV

531

HSL

246

XFT

267

Results How many did you get right? XTR FBW LCP GZU HSL XFT

Duration Rehearsal can keep information in the STM. Without rehearsal the duration of the STM is very limited. Peterson and Peterson studied the duration of the STM using the trigram task. They found participants were able to recall 80% of the trigrams after 3 seconds and after 18 seconds around 3% were recalled.

Results of Peterson and Peterson Use this to sketch your graph There was a gradual decrease in the number of trigrams recalled the longer the time interval. 80% of trigrams recalled after 3 seconds 50% after 6 seconds 20% after 9 seconds 3% after 18 seconds Task: Draw a line graph to illustrate the results Extension Can you think of any problems with the design of this study?

Duration task Answer the following questions: What is a trigram?   What is a trigram? What were the time delays? What was the interference task? Why do it? What was the % recall after 3 and 18 seconds? What about the validity?

Evaluation It could be argued that Peterson & Peterson’s study has low levels of ecological validity. In this study participants were asked to recall three letter trigrams, which is unlike anything people would want to memorise in their everyday lives. As a result we are unable to apply these results to everyday examples of memory and are unable to conclude if the duration of short-term memory may be longer for more important information i.e. memorising a phone number. However, Peterson & Peterson’s study was highly controlled and took place in a laboratory of Indiana University. As a result Peterson & Peterson had a high degree of control for extraneous variables, which makes their procedure easy to replicate.

Exam consolidation Complete the exam questions testing coding, capacity and duration of STM

Consolidate todays learning… STM Research and findings Evaluation Coding Capacity Duration

Lesson 2: LTM

Approaches mini mock

Plenary: answer the following questions How was the capacity of STM of an individual decided? Jacobs found that the average span for digits was? Jacobs found that the average span for letters was? What factors affect the capacity of STM? Why is Miller’s (1956) research useful? What type of research method did Peterson and Peterson use in their study on the duration of the STM? Give one strength of this method when studying memory. What was the interference task? Why do it? What was the % recall after 3 and 18 seconds? It has been argued that Peterson used artificial stimuli in this study of duration. What is meant by this and why is it a problem?

Complete the exam questions from STM

LTM: Capacity and Duration

Read the research on page 6 of your pack about the capacity of LTM The LTM Capacity and duration are very difficult to test. Generally accepted that capacity of LTM has no upper limit so it is unlimited. Read the research on page 6 of your pack about the capacity of LTM The duration of the LTM is probably a lifetime ( read the research in your booklet)

Bahrick et al (1975) Used year book photos Participants tested at 15, 30 and 48 years Recall was 90% accurate after 15 years using name-recognition and 60% accurate free recall Free recall (naming class mates) dropped to 30% accuracy after 48 years but name recognition was 80% accurate This provides evidence for a VLTM A realistic task but hard to control (especially if people still in touch)

Semantic Acoustic

Plenary Describe the research that you have learnt over the last two lessons: Jacobs Peterson and Peterson Conrad Bahrick et al

On mini whiteboards draw and fill in grid below   (main) CODING DURATION CAPACITY Sensory register Short term memory Long term memory

Should look something like this…   (Main) CODING (form) DURATION (how long) CAPACITY (how much) Sensory register Iconic,echoic, other Iconic-1/2 s Echoic-3 s Very large Short term memory acoustic 15-30 seconds 7 items Long term memory semantic A life time unlimited

How do we know about the nature of memory? Conducting experiments

Now it’s your turn! Your are psychologists investigating the nature of one of the memory stores (you can choose which one you do). Your task is to design an experiment to discover what the capacity of short term memory is (although you already know but pretend you don’t). What the duration of short term memory is What the duration of long term memory is You must include -IV and DV, hypothesis, description of method and apparatus you would use, how would you prevent extraneous variables? How would you collect your data? Record it all on research sheet.

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