Ch. 4: Strategies of Systematic Observational Research

The Researcher as Observer Importance of systematic observation Qualitative vs. quantitative research Qualitative: Raw data is in non-numerical form Quantitative: Raw data is in numerical form

Observing While Participating Participant Observation: The observer plays a role in the situation under study. Ethnography Use of participant observation in qualitative research to study “cultures.” Procedures developed to minimize biases in observations and interpretations.

Some General Questions Useful in Ethnographic Studies What is the purpose of the activity? What procedures are used to perform the activity? What are the time and space requirements of the activity? What are the personnel requirements of the activity? What is the nature of the social organization?

Secondary Observations Use of archival material rather than firsthand observations of behavior. Content analysis used to classify and evaluate archival material.

General Guidelines for Doing a Content Analysis Obtain satisfactorily high intercoder reliability. Use specific categories and units relevant to the questions or hypotheses. Employ a good sampling procedure.

Evaluating Content Analysis Disadvantages Limited by quality, dependability, and relevance of material being analyzed Advantages Requires little more than commonsense logic Inexpensive methodology A “safe” methodology Forces close scrutiny of material being evaluated and classified.

Experimental Simulations Goal is to simulate (or mimic) a causal relationship in a controlled setting. Setting allows for the manipulation of the causal condition. Microworld simulations use computer-generated environments.

Rival Interpretations and Hypotheses Alternative explanations for the reported results. Goal is to eliminate flaws and alternative explanations in one’s study. Requires critical evaluation of the study’s procedures.

Types of Experimentation Laboratory Experiment: Manipulation/ modification done in a highly controlled setting. Field Experiment: Manipulation/ modification occurs in real world setting.

Types of Realism Mundane Realism: How much does aspects of the experiment resemble the real world? Experimental Realism: To what extent are participants drawn into or affected by the experimental treatment?

Reactivity Issue Reactive observations affect the behavior being observed. Nonreactive observations do not. Use of concealed measurement and partial concealment are examples of nonreactive observations.

Webb’s Categories of Unobtrusive Measures Archival records Physical traces Simple observations Contrive observations

Using Judges as Observers Independent judges can be used to assist in describing and categorizing ongoing events or existing records of events. Judges use checklists or tally sheets to impose structure on observations.

Ways of Selecting Judges Use intuition. Consult the research literature for relevant criteria to help in choice. Do pilot-testing.