Military history of ancient Rome The fighting men who made rome legendary

Essential question What role did Rome’s military play in its expansion from a relatively small city-state to an empire?

Ruled by foreign powers Rome’s military might was among the primary reasons the Republic was able to conquer and control so much territory Initially, Rome was only a small city on the western banks of the Tiber River. The Etruscans dominated central Italy at the time. They ruled Rome and many other cities of Etruria and Latium Rome was ruled by foreign powers until 509 B.C when the last Etruscan king, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, also known as Tarquin the Proud, was overthrown

The Last king of rome In 509 B.C.E., the last Etruscan king, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, also known as Tarquin the Proud, was overthrown Tarquin and his family was expelled peacefully but soon returned seeking to reassert their power over Rome. Tarquin failed in his attempt to re-conquer the Romans, and asked other Etruscan cities for help

Revolution against Etruscan rulle Only Lars Porsena, king of the Etruscan city Clusium gave aid to Tarquin In 508 B.C.E. Porsena besieged Rome. The attack was ostensibly made to restore Tarquin, but some historians argue that Porsena’s campaign was motivated by a desire to rule Rome himself This struggle lasted until Porsena and the Etruscans made peace and withdrew in 506 B.C. Accounts differ on why this occurred Etruscan sources claim that Porsena conquered Rome, and had to be forcibly expelled Roman sources claim that several shows of great bravery by the Romans caused the Etruscans to sue for peace

Early roman army At this time, the Romans and the Etruscans fought primarily in the phalanx style. Like Greek armies, the phalanxes were supported by light troops (skirmishers) and cavalry The king Servius Tullius, one of the few Roman kings of Rome, re-organized the army from a force of aristocrats into a citizen-army Wealth and age determined military duties Juniores (age 17 to 45) fought outside of the city walls Seniores (46-60) were tasked with defending the city

Treaties with the latins When the conflict ended, Rome was no longer under threat of Etruscan rule Once Rome fended off the Etruscans, around 30 Italian city-states formed an anti-Roman alliance know as the Latin League The Latin League suffered attacks from tribes in the Apennine Mountains, a long mountain range that separates Italy into an eastern and western side. The attacks of the mountain tribes led Rome and the other Latin city-states to sign a mutual defense treaty known as the Cassian Treaty In 486 BCE, the Romans, signed another treaty with the Apennine Mountain tribe known as the Hernici, who were under threat from the Volsci tribe With help from the Latin-League and the Hernici, the Romans defeated the Volsci. Romans and Latins settled in the Volsci’s former lands

Expanding control & power in central italy Rome fought two wars against Veii for control of the region around the Tiber River In 405 B.C.E., the Romans began a war to annex the city of Veii, which lay Northwest of Rome After a 10 year siege that included some severe defeats, the Romans, led by the consul Marcus Furius Camillus, dug a tunnel beneath the walls of Veii and conquered the city Camillus’ conquests expanded Rome’s territory by 70% and made Rome the most powerful nation in Central Italy

The battle of allia In 387 BCE, a warband of the Gallic Senones tribes, led by the warchief Brennus, attacked from Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) The Senones defeated the Romans at the Battle of Allia The center of the Roman battle line was a hoplite phalanx made up of many of rome’s older citizens. The Roman flanks were comprised of poorer and poorly armed troops (they had to supply their own equipment) and were quickly routed by the Senones, who then surrounded and destroyed the phalanx center The battle of allia was one of the worst military disasters in the history of the roman republic

The sack of rome After the battle, the senones entered and sacked rome doing great damage to the city The invaders demanded 1,000 lbs. of gold as ransom for leaving the city The defeat at allia and the humiliation of the gauls’ conquest of the city, created changes in the roman army

Aftermath of allia The Gallic invaders taught Rome much about weaponry. Their successful incursion showed the romans the need to modify their legions to combat the sword-wielding gauls The Senones were much better equipped than the Romans, wearing chainmail and wielding longswords Before the senones invasion, rome fought against similarly armed and equipped armies

Camillian reforms Following the disaster of Allia, Marcus Camillus overhauled the Roman Legions The hoplite phalanx style spear was replaced by the shorter “hasta” spear Legions still fought in the Phalanx formation Hasta was 6 Ft. Long and made primarily of ash Early legionaries were equipped with short stabbing swords, but The spear remained the primary weapon The reach of the spear allowed soldiers to strike from a further distance than the sword

Roman Conquest of central italy

Aftermath of brennus’ invasion Many of the Italian city-states and mountain tribes Rome had subjugated were emboldened by Rome’s catastrophic defeat at the hands of the senones The etruscans, along with the Aequi and Volsci tribes all waged war against the romans between 390 BCE and 380 BCE In 360 bce, rome’s former allies, the hernici, allied with the cities of praeneste and tibur in an attempt to halt the spread of roman influence All of these enemies were defeated and their territories were annexed by rome Rome’s victory gave them dominance of central Italy

Samnite wars After consolidating power in central Italy, rome turned its attention to the southern Italian peninsula, which was inhabited by the samnites and campanians Three samnite wars were fought between 343 bce and 290 bce In 354 bce rome signed a treaty with the samnites, likely to deal with the threat posed by the gauls of northern Italy The samnites were a confederation of 4 tribes: Hirpini, caudini, caraceni, and pentri Confederation: “an organization that consists of a number of parties or groups united in an alliance or league”

First samnite war (343 bce-341 bce) In 343 BCE, the Samnites raided the lands of the Sidicini tribe The Campani tribe sent aid to the Sidicini. When this occurred, the Samnites retaliated by attacking Capua, a wealthy city-state in the Campania region of central italy The Capuans asked Rome for help. Rome decided to switch sides and support the Capuans against the Samnites. Rome sought to prevent the samnites from gaining capua’s wealth and manpower and to secure it for themselves With the help of the Romans, Capua expelled the Samnites, and swore allegiance to rome. Their wealth and manpower would be vital to later war efforts The Romans faced troop mutiny following the victory, but the Samnites faced attacks from the greeks of Tarentum (in south Italy) so both sides agreed to renew the treaty of 354 BCE, ending the war

Second samnite war Fought between 326 BCE and 304 BCE Also called the Great Samnite War The romans and the samnites fought together during the latin war (340-338 BCE). Samnite aid was crucial to roman victory, which gave the romans dominion over the latin tribes and the latium region of central italy After subduing the latin tribes, the romans sought to extend their territory southwards

Outbreak of war Rome intentionally provoked the war by building colonies in Samnium The Samnites reacted by declaring war on the Romans Samnites were busy with the city Neapolis on Italy’s western coast Neapolis and the Samnites formed an alliance to help the Neapolitans expand from the coast but the city’s aristocracy felt threatened by the Samnites’ military presence and war broke out Unable to resist the Samnites, the Neapolitans asked Rome for help, which Rome gave

Early stages of the Great Samnite war The first 5 years of the war saw the Roman legions have great success However, the tide turned in the Samnites’ favor at the Battle of Caudine Forks Two Roman armies attempted an invasion of Samnium in 321 BCE They were tricked by Samnite soldiers dressed as shepherds and went through the narrow mountain pass known as the Caudine Forks, which had only one entrance and one exit The Samnites barricaded one side and occupied the other, leaving Roman armies trapped in the Caudine Forks After several days, the Romans began to run low on food and water and surrendered. The Romans were forced to go “under the yoke”, a humiliating ritual for defeated and disgraced warriors. The insult was heightened by the yoke being made of captured Roman spears. 600 Equites were handed over as hostages and a pro-samnite peace was established This defeat would serve as motivation for the Romans for the remainder of the war

Second stage of the war In 315 BC the Romans were soundly defeated by the Samnites at the Battle of Lautulae The disasters at Lautulae and the Caudine Forks showed the Romans a need to reform their armies yet again The Romans still used the phalanx formation during the Second Samnite War, but adopted the Manipular formation used by the Samnites The Manipular formation was more flexible and better suited for the rough, hilly, and mountainous terrain of central Italy The Roman’s adoption of the manipular formation was a key factor in their later success against the Samnites The manipular formation stayed in place during the Republican period and became the Cohort formation in the Empire

Third phase of the great war The defeat at Lautulae split Roman territory in half In 314 BCE, the Campanians began to consider defecting from Rome and abandoning the Samnites In 311 BCE, the Etruscans joined the Samnites, forcing Rome to fight on multiple fronts After the initial shock, Rome regrouped and began to assert its power The Etruscans begged for peace in 308 BCE after their defeat at the Battle of Perusia in 310 BCE In 304 BCE the Samnites begged for peace ending the Second Samnite War Construction of Rome’s first major highway, the Via Appia, began in 312 BCE to link Rome and Capua, as well as the via valeria Rome established its first navy and increased its recruitment, going from 6 to 16 military tribunes 13 new colonies were founded against the samnites and 6 new colonial tribes were settled into the annexed territory Rome also launched several campaigns that extended its power into northern Etruria and Umbria

Products of the great samnite war Construction of Rome’s first major highway, the Via Appia, began in 312 BCE to link Rome and Capua, as well as the via valeria (306 bce) Rome established its first navy and increased its recruitment, going from 6 to 16 military tribunes 13 new colonies were founded against the samnites and 6 new colonial tribes were settled into the annexed territory Rome also launched several campaigns that extended its power into northern Etruria and Umbria The early successes of the samnites transformed the legion from a phalanx-dependent force to the more flexible manipular armies

Troops and formations of the early republican legions Moving From greek-style phalanx to Italian- style maniple

Quincunx formation Once the manipular system became universal, The standard Roman legion went to battle in the “quincunx” formation This formation was revoluntionary at the time Each line of the army could retreat through gaps in the line behind it to regroup. This also gave the legion flexibility In other armies, front line troops or skirmishers would create great chaos in the lines behind them by running through solid walls of infantry

Manipular formation (pre-battle)

Manipular formation (post-skirmishing)

Additional formations

velites Velites were The youngest and poorest men in republican legions who couldn’t afford much equipment—if any at all Velites carried javelins, a gladius, and at times, a small round shield Primary role was as skirmishers. They flung their javelins at the enemy to scatter other skirmishers or to break up the enemy’s battle line Once their javelins were gone or melee became imminent, velites retreated through the gaps in the hastati and helped defend the flanks

Hastati The Frontline was made up of troops called Hastati Hastati were young poor soldiers who had to supply their own armor (the roman senate only gave spear and shield) Most could only afford the small “Heart Protector” They took their name from the hasta spear they often carried in the early roman era In the republican era, the senate equipped hastati with gladii and scutum. Two pilum (for throwing) replaced the hasta

principes The second line in an early republican legion was made up of principes (individually called princeps) These were older wealthier citizens in the prime of their lives They could afford good armor and equipment Principes were deployed when the hastati and velites failed to break the enemy Principes armor was called ‘lorica hamata’ in latin Like hastati they carried the large scutum shield, a gladius, two pilum, and the pugio dagger

triarii Triarii were the last part of republican legions to carry the hasta Unlike other legionaries, triarii fought in the phalanx formation Triarii were wealthy and experienced citizens, able to afford the best equipment Triarii formed the third and final line of the legions These soldiers kneeled behind the principes to preserve their energy Triarii were the last resort when the hastati and principes failed to break the enemy Their duty was to hold the enemy so the army could retreat or regroup If the triarii saw battle, the legion was In a desperate situation and likely facing defeat “res ad triarios venit” (latin for ‘going to the triarii’) became a roman idiom for a desperate situation

equites Drawn from the wealthy eques (or equestrian) class Played an underrated but important role in the Legions Primary function was to chase off skirmishers and run down fleeing enemies Roman cavalry was a respectable force, often triumphing over the heavier cavalry of their enemies The roman cavalry was only soundly beaten by the cavalry of the Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca, who made use of light Numidian cavalry

Polybian/mid-republic legion Older “important” romans (from the patrician class) were removed from the frontline Younger, stronger troops were placed on the frontlines, instead of the most wealthy The new structure reinforced the roman social order by having poor in most danger and the rich in relative safety Conflict with the samnites during the samnite war (343 BCE-290 BCE transformed the legions from a phalanx force to a manipular force

Third samnite war Interwar years: Between 304 and 298 BCE the Romans extended their control of central Italy The Aequi, Abruzzi, Marsi, Paeligni, Marrucini, and the Frentani signed permanent treaties of alliance with Rome in 304 BCE. The Vestini did the same in 302 BCE In 302 BCE the Romans began battling the Etruscans and captured the Umbrian town of Nequinum forcing Rome to fight on multiple fronts by the outbreak of the Third Samnite War

Outbreak of War This conflict was the first attempt by the aggregate people of Italy to stop the spread of Roman power in the peninsula In 298 BCE, the Samnites sought to forcibly make the Lucanians of South Italy their allies. The Lucanians asked Rome for help, which Rome gave, launching the Third Samnite War Rome feared the strength the Samnites would gain if they absorbed the Lucanians After their defeat at the Battle of Tifernum (295 BCE), the Samnites realized they couldn’t defeat Rome alone and formed a coalition of Etruscans, Senones Gauls, and Umbrians to stop the growth of Roman dominance

Battle of sentinum (295 bce) The crucial battle for control of Italy Featured more troops than any other battle in history to that point Rome sent a small army to threaten the Etruscans and Umbrians, forcing them to return to their home territories to defend them. The coalition lost some 30,000 men to this ruse, reducing their strength from 80,000 to 50,000. The Romans brought 40,000 men to the battle Only the Senones and Samnites fought in this pivotal battle

Battle of Sentinum Publius Decimus Mus commanded the Roman flank opposed by the Gauls. Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus commanded the flank opposing the Samnites Mus’ army was nearly routed by the Gallic chariots but rallied after Mus committed devotio a form of ritual self-sacrifice, by riding alone into the Gallic army Fabius Rullianus was able to defeat the Samnites on his flank, then ordered his forces to attack the Gallic flanks with the full weight of his army, driving them and Samnites from the battlefield

End of the third samnite war The Battle of Sentinum was a major turning point in the war for Italy, and made further resistance essentially pointless The Samnites continued battling until 290 BCE, when they finally submitted to Rome. The Senones were overrun, and both the Umbrians and Etruscans surrendered Rome emerged as the undisputed masters of central Italy, dominating the area between the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west of the peninsula and the Adriatic Sea to the east Samnites were given the ‘Civitas sine suffragio’, citizenship without the ability to vote Only the Gallic tribes of the Po River valley in north Italy and the Greek cities in the extreme south of Italy were not under Roman dominion

The pyrrhic war

Pyrrhic wars The Samnites would rise again when the Greek general Pyrrhus invaded Italy to help the Greek colonies of the southern tip of the peninsula Pyrrhus defeated the Romans twice, but the victories were so costly they were like defeats. We now call victories won at great, potentially disastrous costs “Pyrrhic victories” Pyrrhus was defeated in 280 BCE, giving Rome total control of all the peoples of Italy