by Carl O. Word, Mark P. Zanna, and Joel Cooper A self-fulfilling prophecy is an originally false belief about a situation that causes the believer to act in such a way as to bring about that false expectation. The authors suggest that one person’s attitudes and false expectations about another person will influence the first person’s behavior toward the second person. This will induce the second person to act in such a way (mirroring, perhaps?) as to confirm the first person’s false belief, thus creating a self- fulfilling prophecy. The Nonverbal Mediation of Self-Fulfilling Prophecies in Interracial Interaction by Carl O. Word, Mark P. Zanna, and Joel Cooper

The Nonverbal Mediation of Self-Fulfilling Prophecies in Interracial Interaction: Study Overview Word, Zanna, and Cooper designed two experiments to show the existence of a self- fulfilling prophecy brought about by nonverbal behavior in an interracial interaction. Their focus was on the interaction between black and white Americans, looking specifically at employment outcomes of black job applicants interviewed by whites.

Focus of the Study Possible mechanisms (nonverbal behaviors) of interpersonal self-fulfilling prophecies The reciprocal performances of the interactants

Possible Mechanisms of Interpersonal Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Attitudes and Immediacy People who possess a personal characteristic which is discrediting in the eyes of others are treated with less immediate behaviors (Kleck and associates). “Immediacy” or “Immediate Behaviors” include the following (from Mehrabian 1968): Closer interpersonal distance More eye contact More direct shoulder orientation More forward lean More immediacy = more positive attitude toward a person. Nonverbal behavior conveys personal attitudes towards the addressee. The more positive the attitude, the more positive the nonverbal behavior.

Possible Mechanisms of Interpersonal Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Decoding and Reciprocating Immediacy Evaluative, nonverbal behaviors are both decoded and reciprocated by the addressee. People interpret “less immediacy” as “less friendly” behavior and will reciprocate with “less friendly” behavior of their own. Because people are seldom aware of their own nonverbal behavior, they are more likely to attribute reciprocated behavior, not to their own original nonverbal behavior, but instead to the disposition of the person they are interacting with. As a result of this, self-fulfilling prophecy is born.

2. Reciprocal Performances of Interactants White-Black Interaction in a Job Interview Setting White Americans have generalized, negative stereotypes of black Americans. These negative evaluations can initiate an interpersonal self-fulfilling prophecy.

Study Hypothesis General Hypothesis Sub-Hypotheses Whites interacting with blacks will emit negative nonverbal behaviors corresponding to negative evaluations and blacks will reciprocate with similar behavior. In the context of a job interview, with a white interviewer and a black applicant, the reciprocated behaviors may be interpreted as less adequate performance and thus confirm the interviewer’s original attitude. Sub-Hypotheses Black applicants will receive less immediate nonverbal communications from white interviewers. Recipients of less immediate nonverbal communications, regardless of race, will reciprocate and be judged as performing less adequately than those receiving more positive nonverbal communications.

Experiment 1: White Interviewers, Black Applicants Method Naive, white job interviewers Trained black and white applicants Applicants were trained to respond similarly in both verbal and nonverbal channels Interviewers (test subjects) had the opportunity to treat applicants differently without knowing that their behavior was being studied or that race was the experimental variable. Subjects (Interviewers) and Confederates (Applicants & Team Members) 15 white Princeton University males (interviewers/subjects) 2 black and 3 white high school students (applicants/confederates) 3 male Princeton University volunteers (“team members”/confederates)

Experiment 1: White Interviewers, Black Applicants Dependent Measures Immediacy Behaviors Physical distance between interviewer and applicant Forward lean Eye contact Shoulder orientation Related Behaviors Interview length Speech error rate = sum of the following divided by interview length and averaged by two. (The higher the score, the more speech errors per minute.) Sentence changes Repetitions Stutters Sentence incompletions Intruding, incoherent sounds

Experiment 1: White Interviewers, Black Applicants Results Immediacy Behaviors: Black candidates received less immediate behavior than white applicants. Blacks received a negative total immediacy score; whites received a positive one. White interviewers physically placed themselves further from black applicants. None of the other indices of immediacy showed reliable differences when considered separately. Related Behaviors: White interviewers spent 25% less time and had higher rates of speech errors with black applicants as compared to white applicants.

Experiment 1: White Interviewers, Black Applicants Conclusions Results supported the hypothesis that black job applicants receive less immediate nonverbal communication from white job interviewers. Results also provide indirect support for the idea of blackness as a stigmatizing trait (this extends the stigma effect documented by Kleck and his associates).

Experiment 2: White Interviewers, White Applicants Method Naive, white job applicants Trained white job interviewers instructed to give either immediate or non-immediate cues What effect would the differences black and white applicants received in Experiment 1 have on an applicant’s job interview performance? Applicants (subjects) were interviewed under one of two conditions (Immediate conditions or Non-immediate conditions) Subjects (applicants) and Confederates (interviewers) 30 white male Princeton University students (test subjects) 2 white male Princeton University students (confederates)

Experiment 2: White Interviewers, White Applicants Immediacy Manipulation Immediate conditions Interviewer’s chair was on the side of the table (closer to applicant) Behavior of interviewer was the same as that towards white applicants in Experiment 1 Non-immediate conditions Interviewer’s chair was behind the table Behavior of interviewer was the same as that towards blacks in Experiment 1 Higher speech error rate Shorter interview time Increased physical distance

Experiment 2: White Interviewers, White Applicants Dependent Measures Applicant Performance (high score = more adequate and more calm, relaxed performance) Overall adequacy of performances Composure Reciprocated Immediacy Behaviors Recorded immediacy behaviors according to Mehrabian’s procedures Distance between chairs was measured after each interview ended Speech errors scored using Mehrabian’s procedures Applicant Mood and Attitude Toward the Interviewer Used questionnaires to assess mood state and attitude toward interviewer

Experiment 2: White Interviewers, White Applicants Results Applicant Performance Subjects in the Non-Immediate Conditions were judged significantly less adequate for the job and were judged to be reliably less calm and composed. Reciprocated Immediacy Behavior Subjects in Immediate Conditions placed their chairs 8 inches closer to the interviewer. Subjects in Non-Immediate Conditions placed their chairs 4 inches further away from the interviewer and had a higher rate of speech errors. Applicant Mood and Attitude Toward the Interviewer Non-Immediate subjects reported less positive moods, but the difference was not statistically reliable. They did rate their interviewers to be less friendly and less adequate overall.

Discussion “Results from the two experiments provide clear support for the two sub-hypotheses, and offer inferential evidence for the general notion that self-fulfilling prophecies can and do occur in interracial interactions.” “Taken together the two experiments provide evidence for the assertion that nonverbal, immediacy cues mediate, in part, the performance of an applicant in a job-interview situation. Further, the experiments suggest that the model of a self-fulfilling prophecy, mediated by nonverbal cues, is applicable to this setting and can account, in part, for the less adequate performances of black applicants.”

Take-Away Point and Questions to Consider “Analyses of black-white interactions, particularly in the area of job-seeking Blacks in white society, might profit if it were assumed that the ‘problem’ of black performance resides not entirely within the Blacks, but rather within the interaction setting itself.” Do you think the results of this study could explain racial profiling? What are the implications for educators? Law enforcement? School admissions?