ORIGIN & EVOLUTION OF ATMOSPHERES

Atmospheric Basics Layer of gas surrounding a planet. Usually very thin for terrestrial planets (except for Venus). Affects conditions on the planet. We would like to understand how each of the terrestrial planets ended up having such different atmospheres. Venus’s thick atmosphere

Atmospheres are created by three processes: Outgassing Evaporation/sublimation Impacts All planets probably had minimal (primary. H,He) atmospheres at some point after they formed

The original primary atmospheres (H,He) were swept away from the terrestrial planets early in their life. Current atmospheres are secondary atmospheres, formed primarily by outgassing: composed mostly of carbon dioxide – CO2 or, in the case of the Earth, a tertiary atmosphere of oxygen and nitrogen (secondary atmosphere modified by life and presence of liquid water)

Holding onto an atmosphere requires gravity The strength of gravity determines the escape velocity from the planet. The temperature and composition of an atmosphere determines the velocities of atoms and molecules in the atmosphere. (at a given temperature, H and He will have higher velocities than more massive elements or molecules)

Holding onto an atmosphere requires gravity The strength of gravity determines the escape velocity from the planet. The temperature and composition of an atmosphere determines the velocities of atoms and molecules in the atmosphere. If the constituents of an atmosphere are moving faster than escape velocity, then a planet or moon will be unable to hold onto an atmosphere.

Larger, cooler planets can hold onto atmospheres better than smaller hotter planets

Which Terrestrial planets have atmospheres? Venus has the most Earth has some Mars has a little Mercury and the Moon have essentially none By contrast, the Jovian planets (high gravity, cool/cold atmospheres) have very substantial atmospheres.

Which moons have atmospheres? Jupiter's Io (tenuous sulfur dioxide) Jupiter's Europa (tenuous oxygen) Saturn's largest moon Titan (dense nitrogen & methane) Neptune's largest moon Triton (tenuous nitrogen & methane).

Moon and Mercury “Airless” worlds gravity too weak to hold onto an atmosphere “black sky” The little atmosphere that exists consists of particles of the solar wind that are temporarily trapped.

Mars Very little atmosphere today (CO2) Mars had standing and running water on its surface in the past. Therefore, it must have had a more substantial atmosphere in the past Does it have water today? Yes - frozen in polar ice caps and possibly beneath its soil

Earth A moderate atmosphere today Mostly nitrogen (N2), with some oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), etc. Enough to enable liquid water to exist (temperature and pressure adequate) Together the air & water produce erosion

Venus Densest atmosphere of all Terrestrials Mostly CO2 Temperature at surface hot enough to melt lead Pressure at the surface ~ 90 times that on Earth Perpetual cloud cover, sulfuric acid rain

How do we account for these differences? Composition of outgassed gasses The dominant gasses arising from outgassing were carbon dioxide and water vapor, with minor amounts of nitrogen, sulfer, argon, … Each terrestrial planet’s outgassed atmosphere was roughly the same.

How do we account for these differences? Composition of outgassed gasses (Carbon dioxide and water vapor) Temperature appropriate for liquid water? Distance from the sun, amount of greenhouse gasses in atmosphere. Oceans absorb carbon dioxide -> carbonate rocks

How do we account for these differences? Composition of outgassed gasses (Carbon dioxide and water vapor) Temperature appropriate for liquid water? (Carbon dioxide dissolves in oceans) Interaction of light and atmospheres Dissociation of water and ammonia molecules by UV light, and warming by the greenhouse effect

How do we account for these differences? Composition of outgassed gasses (Carbon dioxide and water vapor) Temperature appropriate for liquid water? (Carbon dioxide dissolves in oceans) Interaction of light and atmospheres (dissociation and the greenhouse effect) Photosynthetic life - generation of oxygen

LAYERING OF ATMOSPHERES

Structure is created within an atmosphere through interactions of atmospheric gasses with light

Interactions of light with atmospheric gasses X rays ionize atoms & molecules dissociate molecules absorbed by almost all gases Ultraviolet (UV) dissociate some molecules absorbed well by O3 & H2O Visible (V) passes right through gases some photons are scattered Infrared (IR) absorbed by greenhouse gases

hottest layer, v. rarified Thermosphere Exosphere hottest layer, v. rarified Thermosphere absorbs X-rays, ionized, ionosphere, reflects some radio, aurora Mesosphere weakly absorbs UV Stratosphere strongly absorbs UV, ozone (O3), stratified (no convection) Troposphere absorbs IR (greenhouse); convective; weather

The greenhouse effect Planets heat up by absorbing the Sun’s visible light Planets cool off by radiating infrared out to space Greenhouse gasses trap infrared radiation in troposphere (lowest level of atmosphere), heating lower atmosphere. greenhouse gasses (e.g., H2O, CO2, CH4 - methane) transmit visible light but absorb infrared light

Greenhouse effect raises temperature of lower atmosphere Greenhouse effect is critical to the existence of life on Earth – it raises temperatures to “habitable” level, permits liquid water

Keeping in mind that H2O is a strong greenhouse gas, why is it that … Think about it. Keeping in mind that H2O is a strong greenhouse gas, why is it that …

During the winter, the coldest nights are cloudless?

During the summer, violent storms are associated with high humidity?

Deserts experience large temperature swings between daytime and night time?

Terrestrial planets: atmospheres Question: Why does Venus have so much more atmosphere than Earth? The answer is found in what Venus’ atmosphere is made of: CO2 (carbon monoxide)

What happens if there is a lot of CO2 in a planet’s atmosphere? Due to the large amount of CO2 in its atmosphere, the surface temperature on Venus is over 700 K, instead of the 230 K that it should be at this distance from the Sun. Does this also explain why Venus has so much atmosphere??? YES!

 On Earth there are oceans Original CO2 has dissolved into oceans, because water can exist in liquid form  On Earth there are oceans Original CO2 has dissolved into oceans, rocks (carbonates) which keeps levels of CO2 just balanced in atmosphere  keeps planet WARM but not HOT if planet were hotter, CO2, H2O would be boiled out of oceans and baked out of rocks  more CO2, H2O enter Atmosphere Evolution of Atmospheres: Earth vs. Venus

atmosphere: T was hotter on Venus Evolution of Atmospheres: Earth vs. Venus Liquid water may have existed early in Venus’ history – but most vaporized into atmosphere: T was hotter on Venus H2O vapor is a greenhouse gas - trapped energy making planet hotter; eventually T so high that water boils ‘runaway’ because more H20 goes into the Atmosphere as it evaporates; no water left on planet to dissolve CO2 – out of balance! eventually stabilized when H20 broken down by UV sunlight and no further CO2 to bake out of the Venus surface

Earth has about the same amount of CO2 as Venus Much of the Earth’s CO2 is ‘frozen’ into the rocks However, if we could raise the temperature of our atmosphere a little bit, it would release a little bit more CO2 into the air This would trap a little bit more heat, raising the temperature a little bit more… This would release a little bit more CO2… …which would trap a little bit more heat…

…which would raise the temperature a little bit more… …which would release a little bit more CO2… …which would trap a little bit more heat… You get the idea!

This is called the runaway greenhouse effect It happened on Venus because Venus is closer to the Sun So - Earth has less atmosphere because most of our CO2 is still frozen in rocks

The Greenhouse Effect & Global warming There has been a large Increase in the Earth’s atmospheric CO2, a strong greenhouse gas since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Human activity is responsible for this increase, mostly through the burning of fossil fuels

There has also been a significant increase in the global temperature during this time AND there is a strong correlation between the increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the global temperature (as would be predicted from the greenhouse effect).

Historical and projected temperatures

Essentially all evidence indicates that human activity is a significant contributor (50 - 100%) to this trend.

What Determines a Planet’s Surface Temperature? In the absence of the Greenhouse Effect: the planet's distance from the Sun the planet’s overall reflectivity the higher the albedo (reflectivity), the less light absorbed  planet cooler

What Determines a Planet’s Surface Temperature? Greenhouse Effect. cannot change incoming Sunlight, so it cannot change the total energy returned to space it increases the energy (heat) in lower atmosphere, keeping the surface warmer It works like a blanket

Greenhouse Effect on the Planets Greenhouse Effect warms Venus, Earth, & Mars on Venus: it is very strong on Earth: it is moderate on Mars: it is weak avg. temp. on Venus & Earth would be freezing without it